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■ c & 

LETTER! 



HON. WILLIAM PRE8COTT, I.X.. D. 



FREE SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND, 

»Vi with 

6< ' REMARKS UPON THE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION. 



BY JAMES G. CARTER. 



Would you have a man reason well, you must use him to it betimes. 

LOCKE. 



BOSTON : 

PUBLISHED BY CUMMINGS, HILLIARD # CO. 

HILLTAUD AND METCAI.F PRINTERS. 

1824. 



DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, to wit : 

District Clerk's Office. 

BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the thirteenth day of August, A. D. 1824, and in the forty- 
ninth year ot the Independence of the United Mutes of America, Cummings, Billiard, &. Co. 
of ihe said district, have deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof they 
claim as proprietors, in the words ioiiowing, to wit : t 

Let crs to the Hon. William Prescott, LL. D. on the Free Schools of New England, with 
Remurks upon the Principles of Instruction. By James G. Carter. 

Would you have a man reason well, jou. must use him to it betimes. 

Locke. 

In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, en tit?°d "An act for the 
encouragen.ent of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors 
and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned ;" and also to an act. en- 
titled " An act supplementary to an act, entitled * An act tor the encouragement of learning, 
by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such 
copies, during the times therein mentioned;' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts 
of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints" 

JOHN W. DAVIS, 
Clerk of the District of Massachusetts. 



TO THE 



HON. WILLIAM PRB3COTT, LL. B. 

Sir, 

The deep interest you have ever evinced in whatever 
affects the political and moral condition of our country, has 
induced me to believe, you would not look with indifference 
upon any effort, however humble, to improve an institution of 
such vital importance to our happiness, dignity, and prosper- 
ity, as the system of free schools. The important relation 
you sustain to the first literary institution in our country, 
seems, moreover, to warrant in some degree my presumption, 
in inviting your attention to the consideration of a few gen- 
eral principles of instruction. It is upon these, that much of 
the success of all schools and seminaries of learning, howev- 
er they may be conducted in other respects, must ultimately 
depend. The principles, I have endeavoured to illustrate, 
seem to me never to have been carried into effect in our 
country. Though my illustrations are all drawn from 
so humble a department as that of elementary instruction, the 
application will be easily made to the more advanced pur- 
suits of literature and science. 

Some of the leading thoughts in the following Letters were 
prepared for the press a few months since in the form of a 
Review 5 and it was not till within a few zoecks, that I yielded 
to the ad.xe of f. iends, on whose judgment 1 am accustomed 



IV 

to rely, and determined to submit them to the publick in 
their present form. I have not assumed the principles hastily ; 
but the circumstances above named, together with my daily 
avocations, and the impossibility of examining the whole in a 
connected form, before it was sent to the press, may fairly 
claim some indulgence in the execution. In selecting your 
name as a medium, through which to make my communica- 
tions to the publick, I was guided not merely by the reasons, 
to which I have already alluded. These, although sufficient 
to determine my choice, only came to corroborate a decision, 
which my personal feelings had already suggested. With 
all their imperfections, and no doubt many will be detected, 
the following Letters are submitted to your perusal, and if 
found worthy, to your protection and encouragement. The 
highest ambition, I have dared to form in regard to them, will 
be answered, if they meet your approbation, and are the 
means of turning the public attention more to the important 
subject, to which they relate. I cannot, however, but in- 
dulge a secret hope, that they may be a remote cause of in- 
teresting minds more commensurate than my own, with the 
magnitude of the object. 

Most respectfully, I remain, 

Sir, your obliged and 

Obedient servant, 

J, G. CARTER, 
Lancaster, 13 August, 1824. 



LETfEItS. 




>' LETTER I. 

Sir, 

The system of free schools in New England, 
has long been the subject of almost unqualified 
praise ; and those, who have had largest experience 
of its excellence, have felt themselves privileged to 
be most eloquent, in setting it forth to the world. 
The great degree of complacency, with which we 
dwell upon this favorite institution, has drawn upon 
us some illnatured remarks from our less fortunate 
brethren in other sections of our country. They 
would, no doubt, be glad to beg a truce from the 
subject, even at the expense of believing all that has 
been said. And if no object were proposed, but a 
vain ostentation of some little advantage, which we 
may happen to possess in this respect, I should spare 
myself the useless task of saying more upon the 
subject. No trait in the character of our legisla- 
tion, deserves more admiration, than the liberal and 
high-minded policy adopted by the Federal and State 
T 



governments, in regard to provisions for early educa- 
tion. New England may well offer her most hearty 
congratulations, that the system of free schools, 
originating with her, has been introduced into most 
of the States of the Union ; and in some has been 
carried to a good degree of perfection. I am, cer- 
tainly, not disposed to detract any thing from so 
good an establishment. It is, indeed, the richest 
inheritance, we enjoy from our ancestors ; and the 
value, we attach to it, is enhanced no small degree, 
by a knowledge of the sacrifices, it cost its pious 
founders. The first and imperious wants of a peo- 
ple in a " strange land," were but indifferently sup- 
plied, when provision was made by authority, for 
the universal instruction of the young. We must 
not analyze, too closely, all the motives, which in- 
duced such provision. We might, perhaps, find, that 
a zeal for the faith, which they believed to have 
been once delivered to the saints, made no small 
share ; for it must be confessed, that little was 
taught in the schools of the puritans, but catechisms 
containing their faith. At least, this was the grand 
object, and every thing else was subsidiary. The 
youth, who had been taught subjection to his supe- 
riors, by arguments summarily addressed to his back, 
and was well versed in the creed of the then ortho- 
dox church, was sent into the world, with perfect 
confidence in his competency to surmount all diffi- 
culties, which might occur in the various relations of 
life. But this was not long the state of things. The 



religious zeal of the puritans, which, to say the least, 
approached to bigotry and intolerance, was much 
qualified in its influence upon the early institutions 
of the country, by their love of civil liberty. Their 
political creed was hardly less heretical than their 
religious ; and they were as impatient of control 
in the capacity of a body politick, as their conscien- 
ces were wayward and obstinate in matters of reli- 
gion. Their attachment to free institutions was de- 
voted and enthusiastick ; and they had the wisdom 
to discover, that " knowledge is essential to free- 
dom." These two causes, zeal for their faith, and 
love of free institutions, conspiring, led to the adoption 
of a policy for the general diffusion of knowledge, 
which showed practically and efficiently, how much 
they loved their institutions, and how well they un- 
derstood, what constitutes the basis of free govern- 
ments. 

New England was first granted by letters patent 
from King James, in 1621, to " diverse of his lov- 
ing subjects," to wit ; the Council established at 
Plymouth, and embraced that moderate portion of 
the American continent, " lying and being in breadth 
from Fourty degrees of Northerly Latitude from the 
Equinoctiall line, to Fourty eight Degrees of the said 
Northerly Latitude, and in Length by all the Breadth 
aforesaid, throughout the main Land from sea to 
sea."* One would think, by the liberality of this 
grant, that his Majesty did not very well understand 

* Haz. Hist. Coll. vol. i. p. 105. 



the geography of this continent, or that he did not 
set a very high value on his extensive acquisitions 
here. The Council of Plymouth, soon after, made 
large grants of territory to different companies for 
the purpose of settlement in New England. To 
Sir Henry Roswell and others, they gave the part 
called Massachusetts Bay ;* and this grant was con- 
firmed in 1628, by the Colony charter from King 
Charles. The Colonies of Plymouth,! Connecticut,! 

* The original grant of Massachusetts Bay embraced, " all 
that Parte of Newe England in America, which lyes and extends 
betweene a greate River there, commonlie called Monomack, 
alias Merriemack, and a certain other River there, called Charles 
River, being in the bottome of a certayne Bay there commonlie 
called Massachusetts, alias Mattachusetts, alias Massatusetts Bay, 
and also all and singular those Lands and Hereditaments what- 
soever, lying within the space of three English myles on the 
South parte of the said Charles River, or of any or everie Parte 
thereof; and also, all and singular the Landes and Heredita- 
ments whatsoever lying and being within the space of three Eng- 
lish myles to the southwarde of the southermost Parte of the 
said Bay, called Massachusetts, alias Mattachusetts, alias Massa- 
tusetts Bay ; and also all those Landes and Hereditaments what- 
soever, which lye, and be within the space of three English 
myles to the North warde of the said River called Monomack, 
alias Merriemack, or to the Northwarde of any and every Parte 
thereof, and all Landes and Hereditaments whatsoever, lying 
within the lymitts aforesaide, North and South in Latitude and 
breadth, and in Length and Longitude, of and within all the 
Breadth aforesaide throughout the Mayne Landes there, from 
the Atlantick and Western Sea and Ocean on the Easte Parte, 
to the South Sea on the West Parte," &c. — [Haz. Hist. Coll. 
vol. i.'p. 241.] 

+ 1629. 1 1631. 



and New Haven were likewise organized by char- 
ters, and these four, for some time, constituted the 
New England confederation. Under the Colony 
charter of Massachusetts Bay, among the first legis- 
lative acts, are recorded the following characteristic 
preamble and law : 

" For as much as the good education of children „ 
is of singular behoof and benefit to any common- 
wealth, and whereas many parents and masters are 
too indulgent and negligent in that kind ; 

" It is ordered, that the selectmen of every town 
in the several precincts and quarters where they 
dwell, shall have a vigilant eye over their brethren 
and neighbours, to see ; 

" First, that none of them shall suffer so much 
barbarism in any of their families, as not to endeav- 
our to teach, by themselves or others, their children * 
and apprentices, so much learning, as may enable 
them perfectly to read the English tongue, and w 
knowledge of the capital laws : 

" Also, that all masters of families do once a 
week (at the least) catechise their children and ser- 
vants in the grounds of religion ; and if any be una- 
ble to do so much, that then, at the least, they pro- 
cure such children and apprentices to learn some 
short orthodox catechism without book, that they 
may be able to answer unto the questions, that shall 
be propounded to them out of sucli catechism, by 
their parents or masters, or any of the selectmen, 



6 1 

when they shall call them to a trial of what they 
have learned in that kind."* 

Although laws like these would not, in themselves, 
lead us to form any very sanguine expectations of 
great progress in literature, or very astonishing dis- 
coveries in science ; yet, from the deep solicitude 
they manifest upon the subject, we are led to anti- 
cipate something better, as soon as the resources of 
the Colony are adequate to a more liberal provision. 
This anticipation is realized by the foundation of 
Harvard College in 1636. After the confederation 
of the Colonies, Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Con- 
necticut, and New Haven, in 1643, this " school of 
the prophets," as it was then called, became an ob- 
ject of deep interest, and received their united and 
undiverted patronage. 

Hc£v general was the interest taken in this insti- 
tution, and how great exertions they were willing to 
make, for its encouragement, will appear from the 
following petition of the " President and Fellows," 
and the reply they received from the Commissioners. 

" Seeing from the first evil contrivall of the col- 
lidge building, there now ensues yearely clecayes of 
the rooff, walls, and foundations, which the study 
rents will not carry forth to repaire ; therefore, we 
present to your wisdome to propounde some way to 
carry an end to this worke." A reply was returned; 
" The Commissioners will propounde to, and im- 
prove their several interests in the Collonies, that by 
pecks, half hu shells, and hushells of wheat, accord- 
* Colony Laws, Chap. 22, Sec. 1. 



ing as men are free and able, the Collidge may have 
some considerable yearly healp towards their occa- 
sions, and herein, if the Massachusetts please to 
give a leading example, the rest may probably the 
more reddyly follow."* 

Notwithstanding the solicitude of the puritans, that 
the rising generation should be educated sound in the 
faith, as well as correct in practice, it seems, the 
perversity of human nature did sometimes, even in 
those good days, prevail ; and it was difficult to find 
proper objects of the publick favour. The govern- 
ment of the College ask direction of the general 
Court, as to the distribution of their bounty in the 
following words. 

" Whither we shall have respect, in the disposall 
of the said contributions, to all the schollars in gen- 
erall, (as by maintenance of common officers and the 
like,) or especially, to such as are poore, pious, and 
learned ; the three usual qualifications looked at in 
such cases, "f The Court reply ; " The supplies 
granted by the severall Collonies were first intended 
for the support and encouragement of poore, pious, 
and learned youthes, and it is desired these ends may 
cheefly be attended in the disposall thereof; onely 
if no such youthes be present, it may be imployed 
for the common advantage of the Collidge. "£ 

These evidences of early attention to Harvard Col- 
lege are cited, not because it is that, in which I am 

* Haz. Hist. Coll. vol. ii. p. 10~. 

i Hist. Coll. vol. ii. p. 85. 

X Hist. Coll. vol. ii. pp. 86, 87. 



now chiefly interested, but to show the interest, oui* 
ancestors felt on the subject of education, and the 
sacrifices they were willing to make for the general 
diffusion of knowledge. Although the College was 
a favorite object of patronage, the puritans did not 
forget the "primary schools."* They bestowed 
upon them an attention, which evinced how well 
they judged, that it is in them, the character of the 
mass of the people is formed. So far as education 
is concerned, the highest seminaries may furnish the 
ornament, but the primary schools must afford the 
strength and stability of republican institutions. As 
early as 1647, less than twenty years from the date 
of their first charter, the colony of Massachusetts 
Bay made provision by law, for the support of schools 
at the public expense, for instruction in reading and 
writing, in every town containing fifty families ; and 
for the support of a grammar school, the instructer 
of which should be competent to prepare young men 
for the University, in every town containing one 
hundred families. For this exertion, which, consid- 
ering the state of the Colonies at this period of their 
history, must have been no inconsiderable one, they 
assign the following truly catholick and pious rea- 
son : 

" It being one chief project of Satan to keep men 
from the knowledge of the scripture, as in former 
times keeping them in unknown tongues, so in these 

* This phrase is used to denote the elementary or lowest class 
of schools, which are supported by the districts of each town. 



9 

latter times, by persuading from the use of tongues, 
that so at least the true sense and meaning of the 
original might be clouded and corrupted with false 
glosses of deceivers ; to the end that learning may 
not be buried in the graves of our forefathers in 
church and commonwealth, the Lord assisting our 
endeavours : — 

" Sec. I. It is therefore ordered by this Court and 
the authority thereof ; that every township within 
this jurisdiction, after the Lord hath increased them 
to the number of fifty householders, shall then forth- 
with appoint one within their towns to teach all such 
children, as shall resort to him, to write and read, \/ 
whose wages shall be paid, either by the parents or 
masters of such children, or by the inhabitants in 
general, by way of supply, as the major part of 
those, that order the prudentials of the town, shall 
appoint : provided that those who send their children 
be not oppressed by paying much more than they 
can have them taught for in other towns. 

" Sec. II. And it is further ordered, that where any 
town shall increase to the number of one hundred 
families or householders, they shall set up a grammar 
school, the master thereof being able to instruct 
youth, so far as they may be fitted for the University ; 
and if any town neglect the performance hereof above 
one year, then every such town shall pay five pounds 
per annum to the next such school, till they shall per- 
form this order."* To insure the object of the law, 

* Colony Laws, Chap. 73. 
2 



10 

the penalty was afterwards increased to ten, and final-* 
ly, to twenty pounds. And lest the moral characters 
of the young should suffer, by their being educated 
by improper instructers, this cautious and saving ad- 
monition is subjoined ; " this court doth commend it 
to the serious consideration and special care of our 
overseers of the college, and the selectmen in the 
several towns, not to admit or suffer any such to be 
continued in the office or place of teaching, educating, 
or instructing youth or children in the college or 
schools, that have manifested themselves unsound in 
the faith, or scandalous in their lives, and have not 
given satisfaction according to the rules of Christ." 

As the population increased in some towns, so as 
to render the former provisions inadequate to their 
purpose, another law provided, that " every town 
consisting of more than five hundred families or 
householders, shall set up and maintain two grammar 
schools, and two writing schools, the masters whereof 
shall be fit and able to instruct youth, as the law di- 
rects." These were the laws for the support of free 
schools, which obtained under the Colony Charter of 
Massachusetts Bay, and as they were executed, they 
secured to all, the means of some education. 

The colony of Plymouth, though not approaching 
that of Massachuetts in population and resources, was 
hardly inferior in the enlightened views entertained 
upon the subject of free schools. In 1667, their 
legislature hold the following language ; " For as 
much as the maintenance of good literature doth 



11 

much tend to the advancement of the weal and flour- 
ishing state of societies and republicks, this court 
doth therefore order, that in whatever township in 
this government, consisting of fifty families or up- 
wards, any meet man shall be obtained to teach a 
grammar school, such township shall allow at least 
twelve pounds, to be raised by rate on all the inhabi- 
tants." As the colony of Connecticut was princi- 
pally settled by emigration from the older colony of 
Massachusetts, it early adopted the spirit of its laws, 
upon all subjects. The causes, which influenced so 
strongly all the early institutions of New England, 
operated as powerfully in Connecticut, as in any of the 
colonies. They loved free institutions, and were 
impatient of control from any source foreign to 
themselves. And their zeal to propagate and perpet- 
uate a blind and bigoted faith was proverbial. But 
they did all for conscience's sake. Whatever were 
the causes, which led the puritans of New England 
to the adoption of their liberal and enlightened policy 
in regard to free shools, the effects were, certainly, 
most happy upon the condition of the people. And 
with the advantages of their experience, and of living 
in a more enlightened age, though we might wish to 
change some shades in their motives, we could hard- 
ly hope, on the whole, to make more noble exertions 
for the promotion of the same object. Their pious 
care of the morals of the young ; their deep and de- 
voted interest in the general dissemination of knowl- 
edge ; and the sacrifices they endured to afford 



12 



encouragement and patronage to those nurseries of 
piety and knowledge, the free schools, are without 
parallel in the history of this, or any other country. 



LETTER II. 



The province charter from William and Mary, in 
1691, ordained, " that the territories and colonies 
commonly called or known by the names of the Col- 
ony of Massachusetts Bay, and the Colony of New 
Plymouth, the province of Main, the territory called 
Accada, or Nova Scotia ; and all that tract of land 
lying between the said territories of Nova Scotia, 
and the said province of Main, be erected, united, 
and incorporated, into one real province, by the name 
of our Province of Massachusetts Bay, in New Eng- 
land." In this charter,* all grants before made to 

* " Provided, nevertheless, and we do for us, our heirs and suc- 
cessors, grant and ordain, that all and every such lands, tene- 
ments and hereditaments, and all other estates, which any person 
or persons, or bodies politick or corporate, towns, villages, colleges, 
or schools, do hold and enjoy, or ought to hold and enjoy, within 
the bounds aforesaid, by or under any grant or estate duly made 
or granted by any general court formerly held, or by virtue qf 



13 

any town, college, or school of learning, were con- 
firmed. The laws which had been passed, under the 
colony charter of Massachusetts, for the regulation 
and support of free schools, were essentially confirm- 
ed, the first year after the province charter was re- 
ceived, by the following act of the " governer, council, 
and representatives, convened in general court or 
assembly." 

" And be it further enacted by the authority afore- 
said, that every town within this province, having 
the number of fifty householders or upwards, shall be 
constantly provided of a schoolmaster to teach child- 
ren and youth to read and write ; and where any 
town or towns have the number of one hundred fami- 
lies or householders, there shall also be a grammar 
school set up in every such town, and some discreet 
person of good conversation, well instructed in the 
tongues, procured to keep such school, every such 
schoolmaster to be suitably encouraged and paid by 
the inhabitants. And the selectmen and inhabitants 
of such towns respectively, shall take effectual care 
and make due provision for the settlement and main- 
tenance of such schoolmaster and masters."* 

the letters patent herein before recited, or by any other lawful 
right or title whatsoever, shall be by such person and persons, 
bodies politick and corporate, towns, villages, colleges, or schools, 
their respective heirs, successors, and assigns forever, hereafter 
held and enjoyed, according to the purport and intent of such 
respective grant, under and subject nevertheless, to the rents and 
services thereby reserved or made payable, any matter or thing 
whatsoever to the contrary notwithstanding." [Province Charter.] 
* Prov. Laws, Chap. 13, sec. 4. 



14 

These, together with the subsequent provisions, 
that grammar schoolmasters should be approved by 
the selectmen of the town, and the minister of the 
same, or of a neighbouring town, constituted all the 
legislative interference, which was deemed necessary 
to carry into effect the whole system. Indeed, laws 
were hardly necessary for such a purpose, in a com- 
munity so deeply impressed with the importance of 
the subject. The colonies of Connecticut and New 
Haven, zealously emulated the older colonies of 
Massachusetts and Plymouth, in their liberal policy 
for the encouragement of schools of learning and 
good morals. In Connecticut, every town was oblig- 
ed by law to support a school for instruction in read- 
ing and writing, if the number of families amounted 
to fifty ; and in every county town, a grammar 
school was instituted. " Large tracts of land were 
given and appropriated, by the legislature, to afford 
them a permanent support."* 

While the resources of these colonies did not allow 
them to establish a college among themselves, they 
contributed liberally to the support of the college at 
Cambridge. Frequent contributions were made for 
that institution, and money was paid from their pub- 
lick treasury. The inhabitants, for a series of years, 
educated their sons at that university. f But the evil 
of sending their sons so far for an education, and a 
desire of multiplying the means of disseminating 

* Trumbull's Hist. Connecticut, Vol. i. p. 303. 
f Trumbull, Vol. i. p. 304. 



15 

knowledge, induced them as early as 1654, to at- 
tempt the foundation of a college in New Haven. 
Though much interest was excited, and some liberal 
donations made, yet the patronage of the colonies was 
too inefficient for the magnitude of the object, and 
all their exertions ended in the establishment of a 
grammar school. Connecticut and New Haven, after 
a series of difficulties with each other, were, at length, 
united in one colony. In 1700, their united exer- 
tions established Yale College at New Haven. This 
institution originated with the clergy, and its man- 
agement was, for some time, confined exclusively to 
them. It early received an efficient patronage, both 
from private and publick munificence. The sale of 
one hundred and seven thousand seven hundred and 
ninety-three acres of publick land, granted to Con- 
necticut by Massachusetts, at the close of a long and 
obstinate controversy, afforded the colony an oppor- 
tunity to add six hundred and eighty-three pounds to 
the funds of the college. 

The efforts of New Hampshire for the support of 
free schools, were more feeble, and suffered more in- 
terruptions, than those of Massachusetts and Connec- 
ticut. Dartmouth College,* at Hanover, had its 
origin from an Indian charity school in Lebanon, 
Connecticut. In 1770, it was removed to Hanover, 
and incorporated with the privileges of a college. Its 

* For a more full account of the origin and early history of 
this institution, see Adams' History of New England, p. 508 ; 
and Belknap's Hist. New Hampshire, Vol. ii, pp. 349 — 355. 



16 

funds consist principally in lands, a great part of 
which are not yet productive. A college was found- 
ed in the colony of Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantations, at nearly the same time the college was 
established in New Hampshire. These institutions, 
together with the primary and grammar schools, 
which have been before described, constitute all the 
publick provisions for education in New England, 
while it remained under colonial government. There 
is no period in the history of our country more inter- 
esting than that, while the colonies were struggling 
with the difficulties incident to a new settlement, and 
constantly manifesting their impatience of colonial 
dependence. There is no trait in their policy more 
important in its results upon the country, than their 
steady and efficient encouragement of the free schools. 
Though liable to frequent jealousies among them- 
selves, and involved in constant and harassing wars 
with the natives, and the French colonies on their 
northern boundary, they still carried forward with 
few interruptions, the great work of making a moral 
and enlightened people. Though each of the colon- 
ies conducted its system of schools in a manner 
somewhat peculiar to itself ; yet all proceeded upon 
the same general principle, which was to afford the 
means of learning to read and write, together with 
some knowledge of arithmetick, to every individual. 
With such a system, and so executed, few could be 
found so unfortunate as not to have learned the rudi- 
ments of reading, spelling, writing, and arithmetick. 



17 

The standard of common education, at the period of 
our history before the revolution, was probably not 
very high. But it was much, to give to all such op- 
portunities, as enabled them to acquire knowledge suffi- 
cient to transact business in the common concerns of 
life. It was by these means, limited as they were, 
that a whole community were prepared to know their 
rights, and to appreciate the free enjoyment of them. 
The free schools, and the laws for their support, 
probably acted and reacted upon each other. The 
laws originating in those enlightened minds, which 
could foresee and estimate their effects, raised the 
character of the people, by the dissemination of 
knowledge, to such a degree as enabled them to trace 
their happy condition to its true source. And the 
intelligence and improved condition of the country, 
were the surest pledges, that a liberal construction 
would be put upon the laws for the schools. During 
the strong excitement, which prevailed, when the 
causes of the revolution were hastening on the crisis, 
the attention, which had been paid to the subject of edu- 
cation, was, probably, for a time somewhat diverted. 
All attention and interest were absorbed by the momen- 
tous questions in agitation, upon the result of which 
depended the existence of a nation. But when the in- 
dependence of the country was achieved, and the 
Federal and State constitutions adopted, the publick 
attention was again turned to the system of free 
schools. The zeal with which they were now pa- 
tronized, and the liberality with which higher semina- 



18 

ries were founded, and endowed, evinced that a 
grateful posterity were not unmindful of the treasure* 
which had been committed to their keeping. Since 
the adoption of the Federal constitution, the means 
of education have been vastly increased in every part 
of the United States. In most of the states, which 
have been incorporated since the revolution, reserva- 
tions of land to a large amount are made for the en- 
couragement of schools and colleges. As the settle- 
ment of the new states goes on, and population 
increases, these lands will be improved, and become 
productive. So the younger sisters of the family of 
the United States have resources for the dissemina- 
tion of knowledge, which will increase, precisely as 
the population increases, and the wants of the people 
become more urgent. What the original states of the 
Union, by whose exertions and sacrifices this terri- 
tory was achieved, have received as an equivalent 
for such copious concessions in favour of the new 
states, I am not able to say. Nor am I sure they 
have received any equivalent. But this is a question, 
with which I am, at present, not much interested. 
Whether the appropriations for education in the west- 
ern states have been made by mutual and equal con- 
cessions from all the states, or whether they are made 
by the old states in favour of the new, the effect will 
be the same on the condition of those, who are to 
enjoy the advantages resulting from them. As the 
first object in the formation of every government is* 
to provide for its own preservation ; and as the general 



19 

diffusion of knowledge and virtue is the most effec- 
tual, if not the only means of insuring stability to 
republican institutions, the policy of the liberal ap- 
propriations made by Congress for education, in every 
new state they incorporate, is undoubtedly an en- 
lightened policy, and worthy of an enlightened and 
free government. In some of the states, which, 
since the revolution, were inhabited only by savages 
and brutes, schools and higher seminaries of learning- 
are now in successful operation, affording opportuni- 
ties and advantages for education adequate to prepare 
young men for all the professions. The means of 
education are not yet to be compared with those of 
New England ; but the time is not far distant, when 
in the progress of events, we may expect rivals to our 
free school system, in the West. 

The means of education in New England have 
been much extended in all departments, from the 
primary schools up to the Colleges and University. 
But whether the means have been increased in as 
rapid a ratio as the resources and demands of the 
country, admits of a doubt ; or rather, it is certain 
they have not. Though schools, academies, and 
colleges, have been founded, and encouraged in 
all the New England States to a good degree, none 
have afforded so steady and efficient a patronage to 
them, as Connecticut and Massachusetts. Connec- 
ticut, by publick and private munificence, has built 
up Yale College to be the second in the Union, in 
the means it affords of acquiring a thorough and 



20 

complete education. They have, moreover, several 
academies of most respectable standing, both in re- 
gard to funds, and the ability of their instructers. 
These afford the means of learning the languages, 
mathematicks, and other branches of education re- 
quired for admission to the College. But the most 
remarkable appropriation for extending the means of 
a common education to all ranks and classes of peo- 
ple, is what is denominated the " Connecticut School 
Fund." This State have enjoyed several rare op- 
portunities of providing for their schools and Col- 
lege. Or rather they have improved the opportuni- 
ties, which every state may make for itself, if so 
disposed. Some appropriations for the support of 
common schools were made very early, but what 
constitutes the principal part of the " Connecticut 
School Fund," was obtained in 1795, by the sale of 
lands in New Connecticut, or what was called the 
Western Reserve. These lands lie in the northeast- 
ern part of the present State of Ohio. They were 
sold for $1,200,000. This sum by the able man- 
agement of Mr. Hillhouse, the Commissioner of the 
school fund, amounted, according to his report, in 
May, 1822, to $1,700,000, in available funds.* 
The proceeds of this sum, amounting to somewhat 
more than sixty thousand dollars a year, are expend- 
ed for the support of common schools. The whole 
State is divided into small districts, and the money 
has been apportioned among thern, according to the 

* See N. A. Review, April 1823. 



21 

amount of taxable property ; but a later law provides, 
that it shall be apportioned according to the number 
of scholars in each district.* 

* By the law of the State, the several towns in it are divided 
into districts, for the schooling of the children and youth. Com- 
mittees are appointed to examine the masters and mistresses of 
the schools, and take care that they are duly qualified for in- 
structors. The State is divided, acccording to the best collection 
I have been able to obtain, into about 1580 district schools, con- 
sisting of different numbers. In some of them, there are an 
hundred scholars or more ; in others there are not more than 
twenty. On an average they will amount to fifty-five, or fifty- 
six. Between one third and one half of the whole population are 
schooled the greater part of the year — in the winter and part 
of the fall and spring, by masters, and in the warmer and more 
busy season, by mistresses. For the support of these schools, 
the legislature have appropriated very ample funds : — one aris- 
ing from new lands, sold by the then colony, many years since 

the other from the sale of the land in New Connecticut. These 
lands, called the Western Reserve, sold for 1,200,000 dollars. 
In October 1815, the value of the fund, as reported by the com- 
mittee of said fund, was $1,501,914.89, secured by mortgages 
on lands. Since October 1815, there has been funded and add- 
ed to the principal, 106,759 dollars, making the present amount 
of the school fund, $1,608,673 89. The dividends on. the 
school funds, paid to the different school societies in the State 
for the year ending March 1st, 1818, on the list of 1816, is as 
follows ; 

October dividend, 1817 $19,761 87 

March dividend, 1818 39,643 11 

Allowance of two dollars on the 1000 on 
the list of 1816, payable out of the 
treasury on the old fund, 13,174 68 



62,579 66* 
Append. Trumbull's Hist. Conn. Vol. ii. p. 547. 



22 

The effect of this fund upon the state of the 
schools, has not been such as might have been anti- 
cipated. Notwithstanding such ample means are 
afforded, exclusively for the benefit of the common 
or primary schools, it is questionable whether they 
are in any better, if in so good a state, as the same 
class of schools in Massachusetts. The vigilance of 
the people in appropriating their school money is not 
quickened, by laying their purses under immediate 
contribution ; and means brought to their door, with- 
out any exertion on their part, are suffered to pass but 
half improved. Among other perversions of " the 
fund," ignorant and indifferent instructers are al- 
lowed to absorb a portion of it, which, under better 
management, could not fail of a great and a happy 
effect. But when the only object of this large appro- 
priation shall be kept more steadily in view, and 
when the same attention and ability shall be paid to 
the judicious expenditure of the money, which has 
been paid to the accumulation of it, this State will 
possess advantages for educating, to a certain degree, 
the whole mass of the people, beyond those of any 
other State in the Union. 



23 



LETTER III.* 



The constitution of Massachusetts, adopted in 
1780, recognises the importance of education in the 
following words : 

" Wisdom and knowledge, as well as virtue, dif- 
fused generally among the body of the people, be- 
ing necessary for the preservation of their rights and 
liberties ; and as these depend on spreading the op- 
portunities and advantages of education in the vari- 
ous parts of the country, and among the different 
Orders of the people, it shall be the duty of Legis- 
latures and Magistrates, in all future periods of this 
Commonwealth, to cherish the interests of literature 
and the sciences, and all seminaries of them ; espe- 
cially the University at Cambridge, public schools, 
and grammar schools in the towns." 

With such a clause in the constitution, we should 
have anticipated some legislative provisions for ed- 
ucation, sooner than at the end of nine years. But 
the institutions and system of schools, which had 
obtained under the Province charter, together with 
the exertions of individuals, were all the means en- 

* The remarks in the succeeding letters are made with more 
particular reference to the schools of Massachusetts, though it is 
presumed, that with little variation they would he equally appli- 
cable te the schools of any of the New England States. 



24 

joyed for the diffusion of knowledge before the year 
1789. In this year the legislature passed the fol- 
lowing " act to provide for the instruction of youth 5 
and for the promotion of good education." 

" Whereas the Constitution of the Commonwealth 
hath declared it to be the duty of the General Court 
to provide for the education of youth ; and whereas 
a general dissemination of knowledge and virtue is 
necessary to the prosperity of every State, and the 
very existence of a Commonwealth : 

" Sect. 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House 
of Representatives, in General Court assembled, and 
by the authority of the same, That every town or 
district within this Commonwealth, containing fifty 
families, or householders, shall be provided with a 
school master or school masters, of good morals, to 
teach children to read and write, and to instruct them 
in the English language, as well as in arithmetick, 
orthography, and decent behaviour, for such term of 
time as shall be equivalent to six months for one 
school in each year. And every town or district 
containing one hundred families, or householders, 
shall be provided with such school master or school 
masters, for such term of time as shall be equivalent 
to twelve months for one school in each year. And 
every town or district containing one hundred and 
fifty families, or householders, shall be provided with 
such school master, or school masters, for such term 
of time as shall be equivalent to six months in each 
year ; and shall, in addition thereto, be provided 



25 

with a schoolmaster, or schoolmasters, as above 
described, to instruct children in the English lan- 
guage, for such term of time as shall be equivalent 
to twelve months for one school in each year. And 
every town or district containing two hundred fam- 
ilies, or householders, shall be provided with a gram- 
mar schoolmaster, of good morals, well instructed 
in the Latin, Greek and English languages ; and 
shall, in addition thereto, be provided with a school- 
master or schoolmasters, as above described, to in- 
struct children in the English language, for such 
term of time as shall be equivalent to twelve months 
for each of said schools in each year." 

Sect. 4. "Be it further enacted by the authority 
aforesaid, That it shall be and it is hereby made the 
duty of the president, professor and tutors of the 
Uuiversity of Cambridge, preceptors and teachers of 
academies, and all other instructors of youth, to take 
diligent care, and to exert their best endeavours to 
impress on the minds of children and youth commit- 
ted to their care and instruction, the principles of 
piety, justice, and a sacred regard to truth, love to 
their country, humanity, and universal benevolence 
sobriety, industry and frugality, chastity, modera- 
tion and temperance, and those other virtues which 
are the ornament of human society, and the basis 
upon which the republican constitution is structured. 
And it shall be the duty of such instructors to en- 
deavour to lead those under their care (as their ages 
and capacities will admit) into a particular under- 
4 



v 



28 

standing of the tendency of the beforementioned 
virtues, to preserve and perfect a republican consti- 
tution, and to secure the blessings of liberty, as well 
as to promote their future happiness ; and the tenden- 
cy of the opposite vices to slavery and ruin. 

And to the end that improper persons may not be 
employed in the important offices before mentioned : 

Sect. 5. Be it further enacted by the authority 
aforesaid, That no person shall be employed as a 
school master aforesaid, unless he shall have receiv- 
ed an education at some College or University, and 
before entering on the said business, shall produce 
satisfactory evidence thereof, or unless the person to 
be employed as aforesaid shall produce a certificate 
from a learned minister, well skilled in the Greek 
and Latin languages, settled in the town or place 
where the school is proposed to be kept, or two oth- 
er such ministers in the vicinity thereof, that they 
have reason to believe that he is well qualified to 
discharge the duties devolved upon such school mas- 
ter by this Act ; and, in addition thereto, if for a 
grammar school, " that he is of competent skill in the 
Greek and Latin languages, for the said purpose." 
And the candidate of either of the descriptions afore- 
said shall moreover produce a certificate from a set- 
tled minister of the town, district, parish or place, 
to which such candidate belongs, or from the select- 
men of such town or district, or committee of such 
parish or place, " That to the best of his or their 
knowledge, he sustains a good moral character." 



27 

Provided nevertheless, This last certificate respect- 
ing morals, shall not be deemed necessary where the 
candidate for such school belongs to the place where 
the same is proposed to be actually kept ; it shall 
however be the duty of such selectmen or commit- 
tee who may be authorized to hire such school mas- 
ter, specially to attend to his morals. 

Sect, 7. . And it shall be the duty 

of the minister or ministers of the Gospel and the 
selectmen (or such other persons as shall be special- 
ly chosen by each town or district for that purpose) 
of the several towns or districts, to use their influ- 
ence, and best endeavours, that the youth of their 
respective towns and districts do regularly attend the 
schools appointed and supported as aforesaid, for 
their instruction ; and once in every six months at 
least, and as much oftener as they shall determine 
it necessary, to visit and inspect the several schools 
in their respective towns or districts, and shall in- 
quire into the regulation and discipliae thereof, and 
the proficiency of the scholars therein, giving reason- 
able notice of the time of their visitation."* 

This law, you will perceive, is a most alarming 
relaxation of the laws under the Province Charter. 
The provision under the coloy charter, that towns 
of more than five hundred families should support 
two grammar schools, and two writing schools, had 
been sunk under the Province Charter. By the 
statute of the " Commonwealth," towns of fifty 

* Laws Mass. If89. Chap. 19- 



families are obliged to support a school for reading, 
writing, &c. only six months of the year, instead of 
constantly, as before ; and towns of two hundred 
families are obliged to be provided with a grammar 
school-master, instead of towns of only one hundred 
families, as under the Province law. The State was 
under some temporary embarrassments, soon after 
the close of the revolution, which is the only reason 
that occurs for such a departure from the policy, 
which had been pursued in regard to schools, from 
the earliest settlement of the country. The resour- 
ces of the people were certainly much more ade- 
quate to the support of schools, after the establish- 
ment of a government among themselves, than while 
they were kept in duress by colonial dependance ; 
or while they were sacrificing every thing to achieve 
their independance. But the effect of a law, so 
comprehensive in the detail as the school law of 
1789, cannot be estimated with great precision, with- 
out taking into account the character of the people 
for whom it is intended. If the law is intended to 
force a reluctant people to exertions much beyond 
their inclination and ability, it will probably be ex- 
plained away and evaded, till it is reduced, in some 
good degree, to their wishes. But on the other hand, 
if the law indulges a relaxation from exertions, which 
the people have been accustomed to make, and which 
they have made cheerfully, realizing a full equiva- 
lent in their own condition, they will execute the law 
upon a construction even beyond its intention. This 



29 

was the fact in the case of the school law. What 
the law neglected to provide for, was supplied in 
some degree by the exertions of individuals. The 
laws for the support of the primary free schools have 
never been executed upon a niggardly and parsimo- 
nious construction. The public mind upon this sub- 
ject has gone much before the laws. They have fol- 
lowed at a large distance, rather than stimulated and 
controlled any interest. The towns have, in many 
instances made appropriations for the primary schools, 
of twice the sums of money necessary to answer 
the letter of the law. The schools provided for in 
the above law, are open to children of all classes, 
and the expense is paid by a tax on the people. 
Each town is made responsible for the execution of 
the laws within its jurisdiction. And, to give inter- 
est and efficacy to the system, it is made the duty 
of the minister and selectmen, or a committee ap- 
pointed for the purpose, to overlook the schools, — to 
visit them, at least, once in six months, — to employ 
and approve the instructers, — and direct in the se- 
lection of school books. Although there are some 
instances of negligence and indifference, this duty 
is generally performed with cheerfulness and fidelity. 
New England possesses some peculiar advantages 
for carrying into effect its system of education. It 
is divided into small townships or separate corpora- 
tions of from five to seven miles square. The res- 
ponsibility of these small corporations is more likely 
t,o ensure a more vigilant discharge of their duty. 



30 

than if they were larger, and the subject of their 
responsibility less immediately under their inspec- 
tion. As the population is scattered over almost the 
whole territory, and the children are often young, 
who attend the primary schools, it has been found 
convenient to divide each town into smaller districts 
for this object. Thus a school ^^.arried to the door, 
or at least into the neighbourhood of every family. 
Each township constitutes from four to twelve dis- 
tricts ; and none are so far removed from all schools, 
that an attendance on some of them is not easy. 
The appropriations for schooling in each town, are 
adequate to support a school in each district, from 
three to six months in the year, and often longer. 
The money is raised by a tax on the property of the 
town, principally, a very small proportion arising from 
the polls. It is distributed among the districts, some- 
times, in proportion to what each pays of the tax ; 
but oftener, a more republican principle prevails, and 
it is divided according to the number of scholars. 
There is one other principle of distribution, which is 
sometimes adopted x in those towns not satisfied with 
either of the above methods. That is, they divide 
the money raised as above among the districts, in the 
compound ratio of the number of scholars and the 
tax paid in such district. But this requires so much 
mathematicks, that even those, who acknowledge 
the justness of the principle, commonly content them- 
selves to do less justice, and spare their heads the 
trouble of calculation, 



31 

These appropriations are expended, a part in the 
summer months for the advantage of the younger 
children, and a part in the winter months for the ac- 
commodation of those, who are more advanced in 
age, and whose labour cannot be spared by their 
poor and industrious parents. The summer schools 
are taught by females ; and children of both sexes, 
of from four to ten years attend, females often much 
older. In these schools from twenty to forty, and 
sometimes twice that number of children, are taught 
reading, spelling, and English grammar, by a single 
instructress. In the more improved of this class of 
schools, writing, arithmetic, and geography are add- 
ed to their usual studies. In the leisure time be- 
tween lessons the female part of the school, are de- 
voted to the various branches of needlework. These 
primary schools, however humble the branches 
taught, and young the children, to whom they are 
taught, have a strong influence in forming the char-\, 
acters of the young. Although the progress in 
studies may be inconsiderable, yet they are impor- 
tant for the notions of order, decency, and good 
manners, which they inculcate ; and for the habits 
of attention and industry, which are there formed. 
The whole expence of a school of this kind, taught 
by a female, exclusive of the house, which in the 
country, costs but a trifle, does not exceed from 
two to three dollars per week. For this very incon- 
siderable sum, thirty, forty, or fifty children, are not 
only kept from idleness and consequent depravity, 



I 



but are taught much, which will be useful to them 
in life. In the winter months an instructor is em- 
ployed, and arithmetic, geography, and history, are 
added to the studies of the summer schools. These 
schools bring together for instruction those children 
and youth, whose labour is too valuable to be dis- 
pensed with, in the season which gives the agricul- 
turist most employment. The total expense of a 
school of this kind amounts to from six to ten dol- 
lars per week ; and it contains from thirty to eighty, 
or a hundred scholars. 

Such are the schools where the mass of the peo- 
ple must begin, and now, end their education. The 
next in order from the primary schools were the 
grammar schools, properly so called. These were 
established by the law of 1789, in all towns con- 
taining two hundred families. The object and the 
tendency of these higher schools were, to raire the 
standard of instruction, and elicit talents and genius 
wherever they might be found. Many through the 
medium of these schools have found their way to 
the University, and become distinguished in society, 
who might otherwise never have known their own 
powers, or thought it possible to aspire to the advan- 
tages of a public education. But this part of the 
system has never received that attention, which its 
importance demands. It has always been viewed 
with prejudice, and been thought to be an institu- 
tion for the accommodation of a few, at the expense 
of the many. In many places, for want of a thor- 



33 

ough knowledge of the subject, those for whose par- 
ticular advantage the grammar schools were intend- 
ed, have been most opposed to their support. The 
law, therefore, has been borne with impatience, — 
has been explained away and evaded, — till at length, 
the prejudice has been sent into the legislature, and 
the whole provision is struck out of the statute book. 
At least, the -remnant which remains can be of no 
possible use for the encouragement of the schools. 
Ail towns in the Commonwealth are now excused 
from supporting grammar schools, except five or six 
of the most populous. And these are precisely the 
towns, which least need legislative interference. A 
law of the legislature to oblige Boston, for example, 
to make appropriations for schools, is preposterous, 
when that city already expends upon the education 
of its children and youth, nearly as much as the 
whole remaining state. But during the series of 
years, while the grammar schools have been neglect- 
ed, the friends of the free schools have had an ap- 
peal to those liberal and enlightened minds, which 
could better foresee the happy effects of a different 
policy. And this appeal has never been made in 
vain. Whenever the public interest in schools has 
declined or been diverted, by the various necessities, 
which press upon a people, in a comparatively new 
country, it has soon been roused again, and stimulat- 
ed in the proper direction. If appropriations have 
not been so liberal as might be wished, those have 
always been found, who would encourage the cause 
5 



34 

by endowments for schools of a higher order. These 
schools or academies, as they are more frequently 
called, have been generally founded by individuals, 
and afterwards made corporations with grants of land 
or money from the State authorities. They have 
now become very numerous throughout New Eng- 
land. In Massachusetts, they are found in every 
county, and oftentimes within ten or fifteen miles of 
each other. They have generally been made a class 
/ above the grammar schools. Here, young men are 
prepared for teachers in the primary- schools, — for 
mercantile life, — or for the University. This class 
of schools is not entirely free. The instructer is 
supported in part by the proceeds of funds, which 
have arisen from private or public munificence ; and 
in part, by a tax on each scholar. For the rich and 
those in easy circumstances, these schools answer 
the same, and probably a better purpose, than the 
J grammar schools, contemplated by the late law ; but 
they are out of the reach of the poor. Many a 
poor and industrious man would spare the labour of 
his son, and give him an opportunity to learn, per- 
haps to fit for college, while the means were in his 
own town, who could but ill afford a considerable 
tax for tuition, and the price of board in a neigh- 
bouring town. This will be the effect of the repeal 
of the school law. The rich, at a little more ex- 
pense to be sure, but that is of no consequence with 
them, will patronize and improve the condition of 
the academies for their own accommodation ; while 



35 

the poor will be left with no advantages above the 
primary schools. One avenue, and that a broad and 
easy one for the progress of genius in humble life, 
is now shut on a large proportion of the community ; 
and talents, 

" Th' applause of listening senates to command," 
are doomed to a virtual death by the operation of 
this measure. Its effects are the more to be dread- 
ed, because they will follow their cause slowly, and 
be felt most at some distant period, when it will be 
most difficult to trace the evil to its source. The 
means of education, though the most powerful in- 
strument, by which a government may effect the 
character of the people, are not an instrument, by 
which they can produce an immediate result. As 
the good to be expected from liberal appropriations, 
though sure to follow, is realized to the country, on- 
ly at a distance from the outfit ; so the evils of 
withholding encouragement, though as sure to fol- 
low, are still at a distance. But happy experience 
ought to have taught this community, how to esti- 
mate the magnitude of the good and evil of the dif- 
ferent policies, even though they are at a distance. 
We are now in the possession and enjoyment of 
those advantages for education, purchased by the 
sacrifices of our ancestors. And the question in re- 
gard to appropriations at the present day, is, whether 
we shall transmit those advantages unimpaired to 
posterity ; or whether we shall shut our eyes on the 
future, and suffer the animating and vivifying princi- 



36 

pie of our free government to be extinguished by ne- 
glect, or perverted by a heedless and inefficient en- 
couragement. We all profess the deepest venera- 
tion for the character of the pilgrims, and those char- 
acters, who laid the foundation of our free govern- 
ment ; and can we consistently depart from those 
traits in their policy, which have made them venera- 
ble, and our government free ? To praise the insti- 
tutions and happy state of our country, and to con- 
gratulate ourselves on the free enjoyment of them, 
is not so much to praise ourselves, as it is to praise 
the liberal and enlightened policy of those, by whose 
wisdom and foresight we have inherited such privi- 
leges and happiness. Posterity will judge of our 
policy, at some future period, by its effects on their 
condition, as we now judge of the polic) of our an- 
cestors, by its effects on our condition. If we com- 
pare the encouragement afforded to schools and sem- 
inaries of learning, by the pilgrims of Plymouth and 
New England, with their resources ; and then in 
connexion, compare the encouragement afforded 
them at the present day, with our resources ; we 
shall be astonished and disgusted with our niggardly 
and parsimonious policy. We seem to rely entirely 
upon the liberality and munificence of individuals to 
redeem our degeneracy in this respect. What would 
our ancestors have though of their posterity, those 
ancestors, who nearly two hundred years since, 
amidst all the embarrassments of a new settlement, 
provided by law for the support of grammar schools 



37 

in all towns of one hundred families, " the master 
thereof being able to instruct youth so far as they 
may be fitted for the University?" or what would 
our fathers have thought of their children, those fath- 
ers who, in 1780, enjoined it in their constitution, 
upon " the Legislatures and Magistrates, in all fu- 
ture periods of this Commonwealth, to cherish the 
interests of literature and the sciences, and all 
seminaries of them ; especialty the University at 
Cambridge, public schools, and grammar schools 
in the towns ;" if they could have foreseen, that 
after one relaxation and another, in forty years, those 
children would so far forget their duty to " cherish 
the grammar schools," as to strike them out of 
existence ? What the peculiar condition of the peo- 
ple of this State is, which renders the support of this 
class of schools unnecessary, impolitick, or unjust, 
I have never been able to understand. And, al- 
though I have been at some pains on the subject, I 
have never yet learned, what the arguments were, 
which carried the repeal of the law through the last 
General Court. Arguments there must have been, 
and strong ones, or such an alarming innovation 
would never have been suffered, upon an institution, 
to which the people, till quite lately, have always 
expressed the strongest attachment. Was that class 
of schools considered unnecessary ? If so, what 
has made them unnecessary ? Either the people 
have no longer need to receive the kind of instruc- 
tion, those schools were intended to afford ; or they 



38 

must receive the same instruction in some other way. 
The policy, and in our government, the necessity of 
eliciting the talents of the country, by every possible 
means, will be demonstrated, when we consider how 
many of our most distinguished Jurists, Statesmen, 
and Divines, have received their early instruction in 
the primary and grammar schools of some obscure 
country village. None, I believe, can be found, who 
will say, the people have no longer need of such fa- 
cilities, for bringing forward to notice the promising 
talents of their children, and of giving to our coun- 
try some of its greatest benefactors. Then by abol- 
ishing the grammar schools, it is expected the peo- 
ple will receive the same instruction in some other 
way. But two possible sources occur, which prom- 
ise in any degree to supply the chasm in the system. 
The primary schools on the one hand, — and the 
academies on the other. Neither of these sources 
will answer the expectation, or be adequate to the 
purpose. The primary schools will not come up to 
the necessary standard, either as they are contem- 
plated by the law, or as they are, and promise to be, 
supported by the people. And the academies are 
out of the reach of precisely that class of people, 
who most need the encouragement offered by the 
late grammar schools. The effect of the repeal of 
the law upon the primary schools, is as yet, but mat- 
ter of conjecture. It is probably expected by some, 
and it is certainly to be hoped by all, that striking 
from the system the class of schools immediately 



39 

above them, they will be improved so as in some de- 
gree to supply the place of the higher schools. If 
this expectation had any foundation, or if there were 
any probability, it would be realized in some good 
degree, it would not be so much a matter of regret, 
that the late measure was adopted. But several 
reasons induce me to believe, that the expectation is 
altogether visionary ; and that the measure will have 
a tendency to sink-, rather than improve the condi- 
tion of the primary schools. Although the late law 
has not been executed for some years upon a very 
liberal construction, yet the knowledge, that it exist- 
ed, had some effect, to raise the character of instruc- 
ters in the lower schools. To benefit the schools, 
all possible motives should be offered to raise the 
qualifications of the teachers. The repeal of the 
law has removed the strongest barrier to prevent the 
obtrusions of ignorance. Experience has long since 
proved, that the approbation of the selectmen as to 
the character, and of the minister as to the literary 
qualifications, is no sufficient check, upon the pre- 
tensions of incompetent instructers. Those, who 
aspire to the place of teachers in the primary schools, 
are very frequently found in the families of the very 
men, whose approbation is required. And however 
vigilant and candid they may intend to be, in the 
discharge of their duty in this respect, paternal affec- 
tion is a most deceitful medium, through which a 
father looks upon the merits of his son. And the 
condition of the clergy, in the country, particularly 



40 

at the present day, is not such as would allow us to 
expect from them, a very positive and decided veto 
in such matters, upon the pleasure of the principal 
inhabitants of their towns. We have now no checks, 
but the very inefficient one above described, to pre- 
vent the employment of incompetent instructers. 
And since the interest and influence of the candidate 
for such employment, as well as the interest and in- 
fluence of his friends, will always be upon the 
wrong side ; it is much to be feared, that the mass 
of instructers, in the primary schools, will receive no 
other opportunities for improvement, than are afford- 
ed in the very schools, where they commence teach- 
ing. If this view of the subject is correct, the 
strong tendency of the present arrangement must be, 
to sink the condition of the primary schools. And 
the only, or at least, the greatest counteracting in- 
fluence, which has existed heretofore, is removed, 
by abolishing the late grammar schools. Few towns 
have supported a grammar school the whole con- 
tinued year, at one place. They have employed 
several instructers, qualified as the law directed, 
and by opening several schools of this kind at the 
same time, have made up the amount of a year, all 
perhaps, during the winter months. This evasion, 
which was a very general one in those towns, which 
took the trouble to evade at all, you will perceive, 
was virtually putting the grammar schoolmasters into 
the primary schools. The consequence has been 
what we should expect. Although the grammar 



41 

schools have in many places disappeared in form 
and name, yet the people have a tolerable equivalent, 
in the vastly improved condition of the primary 
schools. Even those, who have commenced teach- 
ers from some of these schools, have possessed all 
the advantage of the grammar schools, intended by 
the law. The existence of the law, therefore, even 
with so very inefficient an execution of it, has had 
the direct tendency to improve the condition of those 
schools, in which grammar masters have been em- 
ployed ; and an indirect influence on the other 
schools, by better qualifying those who have and will 
commence teachers, with no advantages above those 
afforded in the common schools. 

The repeal of the law obviates the necessity of 
the evasion, which I have described as operating so 
favourably upon the primary schools. And as the 
qualifications of the instructers are diminished, the 
character of the schools must decline. To this, prob- 
ably, all will readily assent. But it may, perhaps, be 
said, the qualifications of the instructers are as high, 
for all practical and useful purposes, as they were 
under the former law, as it was executed. In the 
first place, it is not fair or just to reason from the 
law as it was executed, rather than as it should have 
been executed. In the next place, allowing our- 
selves so to reason, we shall not, I believe, arrive at 
the same result. The qualifications of the grammar 
schoolmasters, were, that they should be "of good 
morals, well instructed in the Latin, Greek, and 
6 



42 

English languages." This class of schools is now 
abolished, and " Geography" is added to the former 
qualifications of the teachers of primary schools. 
Allowing the two classes of schools to have been 
perfectly amalgamated, which is a great concession 
in point of fact, as well as acknowledging a great 
perversion of the law ; we have dispensed with Lat- 
in and Greek, and require Geography in their stead. 
I have no desire to lessen the estimation, in which 
geography is held as a study peculiarly adapted to 
our primary schools. And I am ready to concede, 
that probably ten will wish to study geography, 
where one would wish to study Latin and Greek. 
Now, if an instructer, who is qualified to teach Lat- 
in and Greek, could not by any possibility be quali- 
fied, at the same time, to teach Geography, and all 
the minor studies of our schools, I should consider 
myself as having conceded the whole argument. 
But this is not the fact. These qualifications are so 
far from being incompatible, that they generally ex- 
ist in a superior degree in connexion with each other. 
The connexion, to be sure, is not so essential, that 
a man may not be a very good teacher of Latin and 
Greek, and still know very little of any thing else. 
Still as the studies are arranged in all our schools, 
academies, and colleges, where young men are pre- 
pared for teachers, all the elementary studies, includ- 
ing geography, are generally taught before the lan- 
guages. So that by adding them to the qualifica- 
tions, even if it were never required of the instruct- 



43 

ers to teach them, we ensure more mature and ac- 
complished scholars in those branches, which are 
more frequently and generally taught. I would not 
be understood to discuss, much less to approve this 
arrangement of studies, for those destined to be 
scholars by profession. Such arrangement exists, 
and I avail myself of the fact for my present purpose. 
But besides ensuring better teachers for the common 
branches, there are always some, who would attend 
to the languages, as preparatory to a publick educa- 
tion, if they had opportunity. And if affording the 
opportunity to all of every town, should be the 
means of drawing out but few of superiour talents, even 
those few are worthy of the highest consideration and 
regard from the publick, who possess them. These 
and similar considerations, which I cannot here 
state, have convinced me, I know not whether they 
will convince any one else, that the repeal of the 
grammar school law, even if we could never hope 
it would be executed upon a more liberal construc- 
tion, than it has been for the last ten years, will have 
a direct tendency to sink the condition and prospects 
of the primary schools. 

There is one other point of view, in which the 
effect of the measure will be equally pernicious and 
equally certain. I mean its effect upon the man- 
ners of the scholars. This was a consideration 
deemed so important as to be provided for in the law 
of 1789. In proportion as the qualifications of in- 
structers are lessened, it becomes easy for those to 



44 

commence teachers, who have had no advantages 
above the primary schools. And although good 
manners, or " decent behaviour" have no essential 
connexion with the other accomplishments, or Latin 
and Greek in particular, yet they are by no means 
incompatible. And those, who have had the advan- 
tages of the higher schools, academies, or colleges, 
will be more likely to have acquired some refinement 
of manners, than those, who begin to teach without 
any preparation, except in the very place, where they 
have themselves been taught. 

In publick and large seminaries of learning, which 
bring together young men from different towns, states, 
and sections of the country, the change in habits, 
manners, and feelings towards each other, is aston- 
ishingly rapid. They come together with feelings 
and prejudices, and oftentimes with a dialect peculiar 
to the different places, from which they come, and 
each staring and wondering at the excessive strange- 
ness of the other. But a very short time loosens 
their local prejudices, and teaches them, that all ex- 
cellence is not peculiar to any one place. The 
whole exterior and deportment of the young man is 
often almost entirely transformed, in the short space 
of a few weeks. The change and improvement in 
this respect are more rapid at first, and quite as im- 
portant and valuable to him, as his acquisitions in 
knowledge. What has a more direct tendency to 
improve " the manners" and deportment of the chil- 
dren, who attend our schools, than to observe some 



45 

refinement in their instructer ? Such is the person- 
al influence of an instructer in a common school, 
that whether he is refined or vulgar, or whether he 
attends to the manners of his pupils or not, his man- 
ners will infallibly be imitated and copied by all, for 
the time, as a model of perfection. The different 
sections of our country are more free from dialects 
of the same language than any other in the world. 
What has produced this uniformity of language, so 
desirable on every consideration, but our public and 
common seminaries of learning, — the frequent and 
intimate commercial and literary intercourse between 
different parts of the country, — and the numerous 
points of contact between the educated and unedu- 
cated parts of the community ? For the interest 
and happiness of the whole, and especially, the low- 
er and uneducated classes of the community, it is 
certainly desirable these points of contact and inter- 
course should be multiplied, rather than diminished. 
For these reasons, the employment of instructers in 
our schools, who have had the advantages of some 
publick school or college, is an object of great con- 
sideration. Besides being the most direct and effec- 
tual means, of inculcating " decent behaviour," — of 
reconciling the prejudices of different parts of the 
country, and different classes of the community ; 
there is still another point of view, in which the 
measure is not less important. It tends more than 
any thing else, to lessen the distance and weaken 
the jealousies, which very generally subsist between 



46 

the educated and uneducated. The talents and ac-* 
quirements of a young man of publick education are 
often lost to the unlettered community for some 
years, while they have a delicious season of mutual- 
ly hating and despising each other. These evils are 
in some degree obviated, when, by the kind of in- 
tercourse usually subsisting between a publick 
instructer and the publick, they are taught by expe- 
rience their mutual worth and dependence as mem- 
bers of the same boc\y politick. 

As the Academies are not entirely free schools, 
we cannot calculate upon them to supply instruction 
to the mass of the people. These are most respect- 
able establishments, and some of them are hardly 
inferior in the advantages, they afford for acquiring a 
thorough education, to some institutions, which are 
dignified with the name of colleges. It is not de- 
sirable, that their condition should be impaired. 
Nor need any fears be entertained, that their condi- 
tion will be impaired. There are enough in the 
community, who duly estimate the advantages of a 
good education, and who are able to sustain the ex- 
pense of these schools, to ensure their permanent sup- 
port. And as the other classes of schools, which 
are free, are annihilated or decline in their character 
and condition, the academies will be encouraged by 
those, who can better appreciate the advantages of 
good schools, and better afford the necessary expense. 
So far as it regards the accommodation and pecunia- 
ry interest of the rich, and those of moderate prop- 



47 

erty, it is matter of indifference, whether the legisla- 
ture or publick make any appropriations or provis- 
ions for schools or not. They can and will take 
care for themselves. These are not the classes of 
the community to suffer, when government withhold 
encouragement from the schools. It is the poor, 
who are to suffer. They must educate their children 
in free schools, and in their own neighborhood, or not 
educate them at all. The expense of tuition, of 
books, and of board at the academies are so appalling, 
as to put the advantages of those schools quite be- 
yond the power of a vast proportion of the commu- 
nity. In the towns where academies happen to be 
fixed, the poor will of course derive some increased 
advantages ; but these towns are so few compared 
with the whole, and the incident expenses for books 
and tuition are so considerable, that for all purposes 
of directlv and efficiently educating the whole mass 
of the people, the academies may be left out of cal- 
culation. For not one in twenty, if one in fifty, 
throughout the State, will ever find their way to any 
of them. 



48 



LETTER IV. 

If there is any one cause which has contributed 
more than others, to produce that remarkable degree 
of happiness and contentment, which pervade all 
classes of the people in New England, that cause is 
the successful operation of the system of Free 
Schools. The basis of the system is, that the prop- 
erty of all without distinction, shall be applied to the 
education of all. The principle and its operation 
were thus eloquently described by Mr. Webster, in 
the late convention for revising the constitution of 
Massachusetts. " For the purpose of publick in- 
struction, we hold every man subject to taxation, in 
proportion to his property, and we look not to the 
question, whether he, himself, have, or have not, 
children to be benefitted by the education, for which 
he pays. We regard it as a wise and liberal system 
of police, by which property, and life, and the peace 
of society are secured. We seek to prevent, in some 
measure, the extension of the penal code, by inspir- 
ing a salutary and conservative principle of virtue 
and of knowledge, in an early age. We hope to 
excite a feeling of respectability, and a sense of 
character, by enlarging the capacity, and increasing 
the sphere of intellectual enjoyment. By general 
instruction, we seek, as far as possible, to purify the 



49 

whole moral atmosphere ; to keep good sentiments 
uppermost, and to turn the strong current of feeling 
and opinion, as well as the censures of the law, and 
the denunciations of religion, against immorality and 
crime. We hope for a security, beyond the law, and 
above the law, in the prevalence of enlightened and 
well principled moral sentiment. We hope to con- 
tinue, and to prolong the time, when, in the villages 
and farm houses of New England, there may be un- 
disturbed sleep, within unbarred doors. And knowing 
that our government rests directly on the publick 
will, that we may preserve it, we endeavour to give 
a safe and proper direction to that publick will. We 
do not, indeed, expect all men to be philosophers, or 
statesmen ; but we confidently trust, and our expec- 
tation of the duration of our system of government 
rests on that trust, that by the diffusion of general 
knowledge, and good and virtuous sentiments, the 
political fabrick may be secure, as well against open 
violence and overthrow, as against the slow but sure 
undermining of licentiousness. 

" I rejoice, that every man in this community may 
call all property his own, so far as he has occasion 
for it, to furnish for himself and his children, the 
blessings of religious instruction and the elements of 
knowledge. This celestial, and this earthly light, 
he is entitled to, by the fundamental laws. It is 
every poor man's undoubted birth-right, it is the 
great blessing, which this constitution lias secured to 
him, it is his solace in life, and it may well be his 
7 



50 

consolation in death, that his country stands pledged, 
by the faith, which it has plighted to all its citizens, 
to protect his children from ignorance, barbarism, and 
vice." 

From such sentiments as these, I believe there are 
none in this community, who would wish to dissent. 
As to the wisdom and policy of making some pub- 
lick provision for the general education of the people, 
there has never been a doubt. But in regard to the 
extent of these appropriations, there now exists some 
diversity of opinion. And it is most deeply to be 
regretted, that those who are most timid and scep- 
tical as to the great utility of such appropriations, 
seem to be increasing. At least we are left to infer 
this from the policj^ which has been lately adopted, 
in regard to the schools and other seminaries of 
learning. Economy is emphatically the order of the 
day. This is well. Economy is a great political 
virtue, while it is economy. But when it degener- 
ates into parsimony, and leads to a " pence calculat- 
ing policy," it is not well. While the publick ap- 
propriations are judiciously expended, there is little 
danger of being liberal to a fault, in the means of 
diffusing knowledge. And it was most ardently to 
have been hoped, this was the last expenditure, 
where a retrechment would have been found neces- 
sary. There is certainly no expenditure, from which 
a government, especially a republican government, 
realizes so full and ample an equivalent, in the in- 
creased aggregate of happiness ; and none, by which 



51 

it so effectually provides for its own peace and sta- 
bility. On some political measures, different classes 
of the same community have conflicting interests to 
balance and adjust; but in providing liberally for 
schools as well as higher seminaries of learning, the 
interest of all classes perfectly coincides. The rich, 
upon whom the principal burden of all publick ap- 
propriations falls, have their equivalent in the im- 
proved condition of society, and the increased secu- 
rity of their property. How would the value of 
property be impaired, and at how dear a rate would 
the rich man purchase, or save a few dollars, by suf 5 
fering an ignorant and naturally jealous populace to 
grow up around him ! a populace equally impatient 
of the influence and authority, which property natu- 
rally confers, and rebellious against the salutary res- 
traints of the laws. What would the splendour of 
wealth contribute to happiness, if it only put the 
lives of those surrounded by it, in jeopardy, by plac- 
ing them between their treasures and the rapacity of 
the hungry, the destitute, and unprincipled. It is 
not from this quarter, that we either expect or find 
opposition to liberal expenditures for education. 

The middling and poorer classes find their equiva- 
lent, in having their families educated at a small expense 
to themselves. For these classes of society to refuse 
ample provisions for publick instruction, is virtually to 
refuse to have their -children educated at other's ex- 
pense. Yet it is here, oftener than any where, we 
find a backwardness and indifference upon the subject. 



52 

If we can suppose the small and country towns to have 
an interest, distinct from the large towns ; or if we 
can suppose the middling and poorer classes of any 
given town, to have an interest distinct from the rich 
of the same town ; the former in both cases stand 
with their back to the light, when they oppose, as 
such, public appropriations for education. Either 
they do not clearly understand their interest, or 
they completely reverse one of the safest principles 
to be assumed in all political reasoning. In the case 
of individuals, there may be some honourable excep- 
tions in favour of human nature ; but with classes of 
men and nations, in order to foresee how they will 
act in a given case, we have only to learn, what their 
own interest will be. Now, in regard to any pecu- 
niary appropriation for a publick and general use, it 
seems as plain as possible, that it is decidedly for 
the interest of the small towns in one case, and of 
the poorer people in the other, to advocate a large 
appropriation. Take for illustration the example of 
a bequest of publick money to the University, or 
any public seminary of learning, for educating indi- 
gent scholars. The two or three largest and most 
opulent towns in the Commonwealth will pay one 
half of the tax necessary to raise the required amount, 
and will probably not derive one tenth of the advan- 
tage of it. So the small and country towns by pay- 
*ng one half of the tax, may avail themselves of 
nine tenths of the advantage accruing from the 
whole. I do not pretend to great accuracy, but 



53 

wish merely to illustrate the principle. In the ap- 
propriations for schools in the towns, that class of 
the inhabitants, who are to be the greatest gainers at 
the least expense, are often most reluctant at the ex- 
penditure. In this state we have no means of calcu- 
lating precisely the advantage, in a pecuniary point 
of view, which the middling and poorer classes have 
in publick appropriations for schools ; because we 
have no returns of the number of scholars, who at- 
tend the common schools ; or of the number sent by 
the most opulent class. But the advantage is great. 
I have selected a few towns, which are fair examples 
of the equal distribution of property in the country, 
and inquired particularly into the operation of this 
principle. And I find that on an average about one 
sixth, or at most, one fifth of the legal voters in 
town affairs, embracing the richest men in the towns, 
will pay half the tax. And this same class of men, 
who, if they had advantage according to what they 
pay, would be entitled to send half the scholars, will 
not, on an average, send more than one sixth of 
them, and probably not so many. I cannot pledge 
myself for great accuracy here, but I am sufficiently 
accurate to illustrate the operation of the principle. 
Notwithstanding the burden of the schools comes 
principally upon the rich, they are the strongest ad- 
vocate for their support. No one would wish the 
principle changed. " Government cannot subject 
the property of those, who have estates, to a burden, 
for a purpose more favorable to the poor, and more 



54 

useful to the whole community. This is the living 
fountain;, which supplies the ever-flowing, ever-re- 
freshing, ever-fertilizing stream, of public instruc- 
tion and general intelligence."* These are the ali- 
ments, which nourish and sustain free government. 
If they are withheld, the body politick is languid 
and disordered ; if they are withheld longer, a few 
convulsions may end its existence. Many an ardent 
and aspiring mind is touched at a vital point, when 
the means of education are withheld or perverted. 
Those in humble life are far removed from public ob- 
servation. But if they could be heard, they would 
ask with an eloquence, which would touch the heart 
of the most calculating politician, that those means 
of instruction may not be farther removed, which they 
have so long enjoyed. Their prayers would make 
an argument, which none either could or would wish 
to resist. 

Much, however, as all are disposed to attribute to 
the free schools, and zealously as some, and probably 
a majority of the community, would advocate a more 
liberal provision for them, it is very far from certain, 
that they produce all the good of which they are 
capable, even with their present means. Nay, it is 
certain, they do not. And it is much to be lament- 
ed, that means comparatively ample, and afforded 
by a community so deeply interested in their appro- 
priation, should be misapplied, or fail of their hap- 

* See Webster's Speech in Convention, on a Resolution for 
basing the Senate on population. 



55 

piest effect. The sketch thus far given, relates 
merely to the provisions of government, and the ex- 
ternal organization of the system. And here, al- 
most all notices of the subject, if it has been noticed 
at all, have rested. But, the internal organization, 
including the government and instruction, will pre- 
sent quite as interesting a view of the subject. A 
few remarks, therefore, upon the defects of the 
schools, and suggestions for improvement, will appro- 
priately follow. 

Two principal causes have operated from the first 
establishment of the free schools, to impair and per- 
vert their influence. 1 st, Incompetent instructers ; 
2d, Bad school books. It is not a little surprising, 
that a public so deeply impressed with the impor- 
tance of the system of schools, and so resolved to 
carry it into full operation, by liberal appropriations, 
should stop short of their purpose, and stop precise- 
ly at that point, where the greatest attention and vig- 
ilance were essential, to give efficacy to the whole. 
I do not mean that much good has not been realized ; 
on the contrary, as has been repeatedly remarked, 
the success of the free school system is just cause 
of congratulation ; but I mean, that their influence 
has not been the greatest and the best, which the 
same means, under better management, might pro- 
duce. 

I. The employment of incompetent and inexperi- 
enced instructers has probably arisen more from the 
peculiar situation of the country, than from any neg- 



56 

iigence or indifference on the subject. So many op- 
portunities are open for industrious enterprise, that it 
has always been difficult to induce men to become 
permanent teachers. This evil, although a serious 
one, is one, which cannot at present be removed ; 
but its bad effects may be more qualified, by raising 
the character and acquirements of instructers to a 
higher standard. The whole business of instruction, 
with very few exceptions, has hitherto been perform- 
ed by those, who have felt little interest in the sub- 
ject, beyond the immediate pecuniary compensation 
stipulated for their services. And even that has 
been too inconsiderable, to render a want of success 
in the employment, a subject of much regret. This 
remark applies to almost all instructers from the pri- 
mary schools up to the higher schools , and it has no 
very remote bearing even upon some of the instructers 
in our colleges. Three classes of men have furnished 
the whole body of instructers. 1st. Those have un- 
dertaken to teach, who had no better reason for it, 
than that the employment is easier, and perhaps a 
little more profitable, than labour. No doubt many 
excellent instructers belong to this class. A college 
education is by no means essential to a good teacher 
of a primary school. But it must be confessed, that 
many of this class have been most lamentably defi- 
cient in those literary qualifications, which are es- 
sential to any instructer ; and perhaps, still more de- 
ficient in their notions of decency and propriety, 
which never approach to refinement in manners. In 



57 

the same degree, the schools may be made a most 
efficient instrument for improving and elevating the 
state of society when under the direction of men, 
who have themselves been properly taught, they may 
be the means of disseminating or perpetuating gross- 
ness in manners, and vulgarity, when under the di- 
rection of different characters. 

2. A second class are those, who are acquiring, or 
have attained a publick education ; and who assume 
the business of instruction as a temporary employ- 
ment, either to afford a pecuniary emolument for the 
relief of immediate necessities, or to give themselves 
time to deliberate and choose some more agreeable 
and profitable profession. This is, probably, the 
most useful class of instructers ; although their use- 
fulness is much impaired by a want of experience 
and engagedness in the business. The thought that 
the employment is temporary, and that their ulti- 
mate success in life is not much affected by their 
success as teachers, cannot fail to weaken the mo- 
tives to exertion, and discourage the sacrifices neces- 
sary to the successful teacher. The duties of the 
instructer are so arduous, under the most favourable 
circumstances, that he needs all the motives to per- 
severance, which exclusive devotion to the business, 
or self-interest can suggest. His prospects of hap- 
piness, and respectability in life, therefore, should be 
more identified with his success as a teacher. 

3. The third class is composed of those, who 
from conscious weakness, despair of success in any 

n 



other profession, or who have been more thoroughly 
convinced by unfortunate experiment, that they can- 
not attain distinction, perhaps even subsistence, by 
any other means. There may no doubt be found 
individuals among this class, who are respectable and 
useful instructers. But as a class, they are the 
most exceptionable of the three. To j develope the 
powers of the human mind, in the most success- 
ful manner, requires a discrimination and judg- 
ment, which, it seldom falls to the lot of men of in- 
different talents, to possess. In the science of in- 
struction, there is full scope for the best talents, and 
the largest acquirements. All the elevated quali- 
ties, either of mind or heart, which are necessary to 
ensure success in any of the professions, are essen- 
tial to the accomplished instructer. And some qual- 
ities are required, which are not so important in any 
other profession. How can he hope to arrange and 
adapt the studies of a child, so as to call forth and 
strengthen the different powers of the mind, in their 
natural order, and in the most successful manner, 
who is not capable of enumerating those powers ; 
much less of analyzing them and understanding their 
mutual relations and dependencies. Such, however, 
is the present condition of our country, so numerous 
are the demands for instructers in the primary and 
higher schools, and so various are the private inter- 
ests, which will be felt in the selection of them, that 
it is, probably, too much to expect all to have the 
discrimination necessary, in order to become accurate 



59 

and original observers of the phenomena of the 
youthful mind. But we have much to hope from 
those, who can better appreciate the importance of a 
correct system from instruction, — from the encourage- 
ment of individuals, — and the patronage of those 
large towns, which carry education to its greatest 
perfection. It is to these sources, we must look for 
the first examples in improvement. 

There is no science, which is so difficult to be re- 
duced to general principles, as that of education, — 
none where the faithful and patient induction of 
large experience, is so essential. Although there un- 
doubtedly are some general rules, to which the inex- 
perienced instructer may be referred for direction, 
yet these are much fewer than is generally imagined. 
Every mind, especially in its early development, 
presents exceptions and qualifications to almost eve- 
ry general rule, which can be adopted. So various 
and multiform are the phenomena of the youthful 
mind, so intimate the connexion, and so strong the 
mutual influence, of the powers of the mind, and 
the affections of the heart, and so fleeting and evan- 
escent is the nature of the evidence, by which all 
these must be detected and classified, that he must 
be skilful, indeed, who presumes to offer any thing 
like a complete analysis. This is not now to be at- 
tempted. But from this view of the subject, it 
would seem, the skill of the instructer is evinced, 
much more in his ability to detect minute differences, 
and to call forth those tender and feeble powers, the 



60 

evidence of which is so faint, as to admit a doubt of 
their very existence, than in his force to drive on the 
"system of things," which has been established for 
ages. It is as preposterous to reduce the infinite 
variety of young minds to precisely the same disci- 
pline, calculating upon the same result, as it would 
be, to hope to make all men look alike by law ; and 
it is as cruel as it would be to break their bodies, at 
once, to the bed of Procrustes. " It is one thing to 
learn, and another to teach. It is very possible to 
possess vast stores of knowledge, and not be able to 
impart them, even to the willing and anxious pupil. 
To fix the volatile, to stimulate the sluggish, and 
overcome the obstinate, demand an acquaintance 
with the human mind not quite innate, nor likely to 
be acquired without some experience." 

II. The success of our schools depends as much 
on the principles,* by which thy are governed, and 
the school books, as on the personal and literary 
qualifications of the instmcter. This is the sphere 
for useful exertion, and the source, to which we may 
look, for the greatest improvements. The succeed- 
ing remarks, however, are exclusively confined to the 
subject of School Books, and the general principles 
of communicating knowledge, or the Science of In- 
struction. 

* The classification, — arrangement of studies,— and principles 
of government best adapted to the schools, and upon which so 
much of their success depends, form interesting and important 
subjects of discussion, on which I would gladly enter, but am 
obliged, at present, to relinquish the design. 



61 

Defects in the state of school and text books, are 
less likely to be felt, because we have all been in- 
structed from them, and our minds are formed upon 
them, as upon certain models. Reformation is on 
all subjects progressive. Even reformers themselves 
■ cannot, at once, shake off the many associations, 
which obscure their judgment. And reformation, or 
rather improvements in the principles of instruction, 
are more slow and difficult to be made, than in those 
of almost any other subject. This is partly because 
the subject is one of intrinsick difficulty ; but more 
because so many prejudices are to be encountered. 
Our prejudices, however, on this subject are all hon- 
est, for they are wrought into our very nature, from 
our earliest infancy ; and they are the stronger, pre- 
cisely, because all acknowledge the subject to be of 
the utmost importance, and take particular care, that 
all should be taught according to the most approved 
and philosophical plan ; that is, just as we our- 
selves have been taught. Every age and generation 
think, that they have just arrived at perfection. And 
they take care accordingly, that their children shall 
never relapse to the ignorance of their ancestors. 
This would be well, if they did not take almost as 
effectual care, that they should never be wiser than 
their fathers. But this is provided against with 
most pious care. The very best men of all ages, 
those, who can hardly find good enough to do, in 
this short life, to satisfy themselves, would, with ve- 
ry few exceptions, be heartily glad to freeze or pet- 



62 

lifj the world, in the perfect and consistent form, in 
which they are about to leave it, lest a rash and 
wicked posterity should jostle it out of shape. 

As the principles of religion, and the principles of 
instruction are more important than others ; so they 
are proportionally well guarded against all innovation, 
even if it should be an improvement. Every change, 
therefore, in either of these subjects, especially, 
when fundamental principles are called in question, 
must force its way against fearful odds. It must 
encounter all the deep and firm prejudices of 
early education, — all the authority and personal in- 
fluence of our teachers, — and the almost overwhelm- 
ing influence of the oldest institutions in the world.* 
Still every age does make some improvement upon 
the one before it. And though we may be insensi- 
ble of the progressive motion, at short intervals ; yet, 
at the end of a hundred years, we have left our land 
marks far behind. 

But besides these general and honest prejudices, 
which no one believes he possesses, yet all do pos- 
sess ; there are others, in the particular case in hand, 
which are not entitled to so much respect. In the 
case of school books, there are prejudices of igno- 
rance and interest to be encountered. The mass of 

*The venerable English Universities, "Oxford and Gam- 
bridge, in the fine metaphor of Dugald Stuart, are immovably 
moored to the same station by the length of their cables, thereby 
enabling the historian of the human mind, to measure the rapidi- 
ty of the current, by which the rest of the world are borne 
alonff." [IngersolPs Discourse.] 



63 

instructors in the primary schools, who have most in- 
fluence in the selection of school books, had com- 
monly much rather teach an old book, which they 
themselves have been taught, than be at the trouble 
of learning a new one. Indeed, so superficial has 
the education of most instructers of common schools 
been, that a new book is to them, a new subject. 
The particular form and words, in which the princi- 
ples of any branch of learning have been expressed, 
and the principles themselves, are with them, identi- 
cal ; and if the words are varied, the principles are 
not recognised. 

Could they be divested of all the prejudices, they 
imbibe from early education, it is believed the re- 
pugnance of the method, upon which school books 
are written, to the acknowledged principles and laws 
of the human mind, would be at once felt. Indeed, 
the whole range of text books for elementary in- 
struction, is liable to the same remark. Since the 
inductive method of Lord Bacon, the sciences have 
undergone, and are still undergoing, an essential 
change. The object of pursuit, by the new system 
of logick, is more steadily kept in view, and facili- 
ties are added to the means of pursuit. Discoveries 
have, consequently, been made, which have quite 
transformed the whole circle of the sciences. The 
identity of some principles, which had been before 
considered different, has been established ; and oth- 
ers have been separated, which had before been iden- 
tical. Order has taken the place of confusion in all 



64 

the sciences. Chymistry has declared independence 
of Natural Philosophy, and assumed the dignity of 
a separate science. Political Economy has been 
added to the sisterhood, and, like all young children, 
bids fair to be the pet of the family. 

Is it not astonishing, that, while all acknowledge 
the importance of the new method of interpreting 
nature, and adopt it in all their own pursuits, none 
yet seem to feel, that the same principles are equally 
applicable to communicating the sciences to others, 
or the science of instruction ? The grand principles 
of instruction are much the same, they were before 
the time of Bacon ; but the philosophy of Mind as 
well as Matter, have assumed another form. The 
elementary principles of the human mind are the 
same at six, at sixteen, and sixty. They exist in 
different degrees of strength and improvement at dif- 
ferent periods, and they change their relative weight, 
as elements of a character ; but no new power is 
created, precisely at the time, the learner throws off 
the thraldom of a system of discipline, calculated to 
impede, rather than develop the mind, and pursues 
truth in the most direct . and natural way. Yet 
this would seem to be the inference from the fact, 
that a method of communicating knowledge is retained, 
which is acknowledged to be different, and if exam- 
ined, will be found to be repugnant, to the method, 
the mind pursues, when left to make its own ac- 
quirements. All, who have attended in the least to 
an analysis of their own minds, at the different 



65 

stages in the progress of their development, must 
be conscious of having to unlearn, if it may be so 
called, most of the acquirements of youth. That is, 
they must break up the arrangement and classifica- 
tion of their knowledge, which have been made up- 
on a method repugnant to the principles of the mind ; 
and make a new classification upon the correct prin- 
ciple. This, all must do, whether they are con- 
scious of it or not, who are destined to make much 
progress in knowledge. Although this is not so 
difficult a process, as might, at first, be imagined ; 
yet, the powers of the mind must be somewhat par- 
alyzed in their development, and checked in the 
acquirement of knowledge, by the change of impor- 
tant principles, in the method of acquirement. The 
advantage of taking the correct and philosophical 
method at the earliest age, and pursuing it without 
interruption or change, can hardly be estimated. 
This is an achievement, which remains yet to be 
made ; and it is one, whose influence on the sciences, 
and the condition of mankind, cannot be distinctly 
foreseen. 

The triumph of the inductive logick, although it 
is a cause, which has more changed the state of the 
arts and sciences, and consequently the whole face 
of the world, than any other, which has operated 
within the reach of history, is but half complete, 
till it is carried into the subject of education. The 
principles of the inductive philosophy should be as 
rigorously followed in education, as any other de- 
9 



66 

partment of human knowledge. The school books, 
and we may add the text books of the colleges, are 
certainly not written upon the inductive method. 
And these are our instructers, or the models, on which 
our instructers form us. The books to be sure have 
been written over and over again, in order to keep 
pace with, and incorporate the improvements and 
discoveries in the different sciences, of which they 
treat. This is well, and as it should be. But the 
essential principle, on which they are written, is the 
same through all changes. This is wrong, and what 
should be corrected. Improvements in arrangement, 
and in the manner of expressing the principles of 
the sciences, have, no doubt, been frequently made. 
Indeed, the books have probably been carried to as 
great perfection, as they can be carried, without 
some more essential change in the principles, on 
which they have been written. They are very well 
executed, upon a very bad plan. The reason to be 
assigned for such slow progress in the improvements 
of school books, in particular, is a mistaken notion 
of the purpose of a school book ; and the fact, that 
there have seldom been brought to the task of ele- 
mentary instruction, talents capable of comprehend- 
ing, at once, the principles of a science, in their re- 
lation and dependance upon each other ; and still less 
capable of analyzing the powers of the young mind, 
to which the science is to be adapted. The books 
for elementary instruction, have been written or 
compiled, with a view to set forth the principles of 



67 

the science, of which it treats, in a manner the most 
philosophical to those who make the books, but with 
little or no reference to the young minds, which are 
to encounter them. The object of the education, 
which can be given in the schools of this country, or 
even the colleges, is not so much to give knowledge, 
as to develop the powers of the mind, and strength- 
en them for the acquirement of knowledge, at some 
future period. Every thing, therefore, even philo- 
sophical accuracy, if it is necessary, must be sacri- 
ficed to the single object of adaptation to the mind. 
It is of little consequence, what the study is, which 
the child or youth is put upon, if it be so managed, 
as to bring forward all the powers of the mind, in 
their proper and natural order. And when the mind 
has acquired some strength by discipline, and a just 
balance among all its faculties, its attention may then 
be turned towards the acquirement of useful knowl- 
edge, with a good hope of success. But impatient 
parents have estimated instructers, by their ability 
to give a smattering of learning in some branch of 
knowledge, rather than their ability to watch over 
and detect all wrong associations ; and to preserve 
the balance essential to a well disciplined mind, 
by encouraging or repressing different faculties as 
the particular case may require. Perfection of edu- 
cation consists more in the harmony and just propor- 
tion of all the powers of the mind, than in the over- 
grown strength of any one. When the plan of a 
school book, or the arrangement of studies generally.. 



68 

is such as to exercise but few or one power, this 
takes the lead. It monopolizes an undue share of 
energy, and becomes overgrown at the expense of 
some, or all of the other powers. The features of 
the mind become distorted, and unless the deformity 
is corrected by the judicious instructer, the effect 
will become permanent, and extend to the whole 
character. 



LETTER V. 

If Socrates was said to have brought philosophy 
from heaven, Bacon may as truly be said to have in- 
fused it into men. The generations, that have lived 
between that prodigy of human intellect and our- 
selves, have acknowledged their obligations to him, 
and no doubt profited much by his instructions. 
But, it is apprehended, his philosophy is not yet 
brought down to our comprehension, and carried 
thoroughly and effectually into all our intellectual 
exertions. It is said, he felt that he belonged to a 
later age, than that, in which he lived ; and in anti- 
cipation of his increasing fame, " bequeathed his 



name to posterity, after some generations shall be 
passed."* Perhaps this generation is the intended 
heir ; and it is high time, they had put in their claim 
to enjoy the inheritance. 

There are no means, by which we may derive 
more advantage from his philosophy, and consequent- 
ly render more honour to his name, than by applying 
it to the subject of education, or the science of in- 
struction. The applicability of his philosophy to 
this subject, has been, long since, acknowledged by 
high authority. And the distance between the ac- 
knowledgment of the principle, and the application 
of it, has not been greater, than was to be expected ; 
especially, when we consider, that the application 
depended upon judgments warped by all the preju- 
dices or " Idols" of the mind, formed under the 
reign of a different philosophy. 

Mr. Stewart, sketching a system of logick, ob- 
serves : " Another very important branch of a ra- 
tional system of logick, ought to be, to lay down 
the rules of investigation, which it is proper to fol- 
low in the different sciences." And when, farther 
on, he tells us how to lay down such rules of inves- 
tigation, he says : " Such is the incapacity of most 
people for abstract reasoning, that I am inclined to 
think, even if the rules of inquiry were delivered in 
a perfectly complete, and unexceptionable form, it 
might still be expedient to teach them to a majority 

* Stewart's Dissertation on the History of Philosophy. Part 
i. p. 94. 



70 

of students, rather by examples, than in the form of 
general principles."* How far Mr. Stewart was 
able to overcome the ' Idols' of his own mind, and 
keep himself consistent with the principle above laid 
down, his book must decide. 

There is a wide difference between the rules of 
inquiry, by which we are to proceed to the study of 
a science, and the principles of that science, after 
we have already begun to make acquisitions in it. 
But if the former should be taught by examples, the 
reasons are much stronger, why the latter should. 
It would be much easier to understand by a maxim, 
in what direction the science lays ; than it would be 
to understand by the same means, all the particulars 
or facts of that science, when the inquirer has arriv- 
ed upon the ground. The mind does not perceive a 
general truth, till it has perceived the particular 
truths, from which it has been derived. If any 
thing more than our own experience were necessary 
to settle this point, passages might be selected from 
various authors, to add the weight of their authority. 
But it is not the custom to question this position ; 
and it is quite as little the custom to pay any atten- 
tion to it. It is to this point, attention is now invit- 
ed ; in the hope it may have, not only a specula- 
tive belief, but a practical influence upon our princi- 
ples, and systems of instruction. 

But this is dealing too much in generals ; or fall- 
ing precisely into the error to be controverted. To 

* Philosophy of the Human Mind. In trod. Part 2d. Sec. 2d. 



71 

be consistent, a particular example must be taken, to 
illustrate what is meant by inductive instruction. I 
must even be so consistent, as not to give a defini- 
tion. For unless our experience upon the particular 
subject has been altogether similar, there would be 
great danger of being misunderstood, or not under- 
stood at all ; till an example explained the meaning, 
and then a definition would be unnecessary. After 
a. few examples of the application of the principle, 
it will be easy for any one to make a correct defini- 
tion for himself. 

In selecting the example of languages, I shall 
probably meet more objections, and encounter more 
skepticks, than in any other example, which could 
be taken. But principles are always best tested by 
extreme cases. And there is no necessity for avail- 
ing myself of the advantage of the happiest applica- 
tion I could select. 

In our most approved schools, the method of 
teaching languages has been, to put into the hand of 
the pupil a grammar of the language to be taught ; 
and require him to learn, as it is improperly called, the 
general principles of the language. This is done com- 
monly at the expense of from three to six or twelve 
months' time, and a thorough disgust to the whole 
subject. This disgust very naturally arises from be- 
ing kept so long, on what he does not in the least 
understand.* At the end of this time, if the teacher 

* To counteract in some degree, this baneful effect, artificial 
stimulants are applied. And these are increased to so intense a 
degree, as to produce a perfect phrenzy in the pupil, to seem to 



n 

has been inflexible in his purpose, and the pupil not 
unreasonably stupid, he will have committed to mem- 
ory his grammar from end to end, including all rules 
and all exceptions ; to which he probably attaches 
equal importance. He may have fixed perfectly in 
his memory, all the subtle refinements of all the phi- 
losophers, who have spent their lives in studying the 
principles and anomalies of the language ; but he 
has made but a small approximation to a knowledge 
of it. This is studying the philosophy of the lan- 
guage before the pupil is acquainted with the facts 
of it. 

This system of teaching proceeds upon the suppo- 
sition, that the language was invented and formed 
by the rules of grammar. Nothing is more false. 
A grammar can never be written till a good knowl- 
edge of the language is attained ; and then, contrary 
to what the pupil supposes, the grammar is made to 
suit the language. Now why invert this natural 
method in teaching language to young learners? 

have learned all, that could be expected from him. Under the 
strong excitement of hope or fear, the young learner will spare 
no pains to accomplish his task. But it must be remembered, 
that under the influence of these motives, the object is only to 
convince the instructer the task is accomplished. And often- 
times the craftiness of the pupil will invent some more expedi- 
tious method for this purpose, than really to possess himself of 
the knowledge he is expected to gain. These short cuts to the 
approbation of the instructer, it is feared, are not always con- 
sistent with that ingenuousness, which it is so desirable to culti- 
vate in the youthful heart. 



Must not the facts be learned, before they can be 
classed under general principles ? What are the 
rules and principles, which the pupil has learned at 
so dear a rate ? They are no more than the verbal 
generalisation of facts. How have they themselves 
been formed ? By the experience of those whose 
attention has been directed to the observation of the 
facts. They are abstract principles, the truth of 
which can neither be perceived, understood, nor be- 
lieved, till some single instance, within the compre- 
hension of the principle or rule, presents itself to the 
learner. And then he will perceive the fact in the 
particular case, long before he discovers its identity 
with the rule, if he is ever so fortunate as to dis- 
cover it. 

In learning the peculiarities of a language, which 
is but imperfectly known, the philosopher does not 
(although he might to much better advantage than 
a young learner) go to the grammar of that language ; 
he selects the best authors and makes a careful analy- 
sis of their sentences ; and thus discovers, what 
constructions are common with other languages, and 
what are peculiar to the one to be learned. At the 
end of his researches, he forms into general princi- 
ples, the result of his experience. The rule, there- 
fore, is obtained by a patient induction of particular 
instances, and is put in words, not to teach us any- 
thing, but to classify what has already been learned, 
and put it in a form convenient to be referred to, 
as occasion requires. As we assort our papers by 
10 



74 

examination of each particular one, and put togeth- 
er the letters of correspondence, the promissory notes, 
and the deeds of conveyance ; and then put on each 
collection a label, with the title of the class, as a 
convenience for reference only, not because that al- 
ters the nature of the papers, on which it is put. 

The analogy pursued illustrates my meaning far- 
ther. He, who has committed to his memory all the 
principles of a language, before he has had experi- 
ence of the particular cases, from which those prin- 
ciples have been derived, will be no wiser in respect 
to his language, than he, who should collect the la- 
bels of his papers, and take this for a knowledge of 
their nature. The abstract principles of a language 
give no more adequate idea of the particulars, from 
which they have been formed, than the labels give of 
the nature and obligation of a note, or a deed, before 
those papers have been separately and individually 
examined. 

The facts of a language must be first learned, and 
they always are first learned, all the arrangements 
to the contrary notwithstanding. The rules in the 
learner's memory are perfectly useless, till he has 
learned the particulars or facts of the language ; be- 
cause he cannot till then understand them. And 
when the pupil is learning the language by experience, 
he will make rules for his own convenience, precisely 
as a philosopher does ; and always make them as 
general as his experience will allow. As he makes 
farther progress, and becomes acquainted with more 



75 

of the minutiae of the language, he will extend the 
comprehension of his rules, till they become as gen- 
eral as the nature of the subject admits. Then the 
exceptions will be noticed and classed under the 
rules, to which they are exceptions. 

Is not this natural and philosophical ; and if so, 
why do we pursue a method diametrically opposite 
to both ? What then is the business of the instruct- 
er ? and must every pupil learn the language under 
all the disadvantages, which we should encounter in 
attempting to learn a dead language, without, gram- 
mar or instructer ? The business of the instructer 
is, to lay before his pupil those facts, which are easi- 
est perceived. Such are the meaning of the words, 
and the construction of the simplest sentences. And 
as a knowledge of the words is attained, and the for- 
mation of the sentences understood, a principle of 
limited comprehension is established in the mind of 
the pupil, and sentences of more difficult construction 
are put in his way. 

The duty of the instructer is more arduous ; be- 
cause he must know by observation, precisely how 
fast his pupil generalises, in order to arrange the 
difficulties he is to encounter. The duty of the 
learner is easier, and his success more certain ; be- 
cause he knows, if his instructer is not ignorant or 
careless, that he is competent to solve, of himself, 
every difficulty which occurs. Whereas when he 
proceeds to sentences and books at random, with 
grammar and dictionary in hand, he does not know, 



76 

when he encounters a hard passage, whether it is ca- 
pable of a satisfactory answer, or whether it is a 
subject of debate among commentators. This doubt 
discourages perseverance ; whereas, by the other 
method, he knows he can succeed, and the responsi- 
bility is his own, if he fails. Greater difficulties, by 
far, are presented to the learner, in attempting to 
apply a principle so much more general, than his ex- 
perience, than would occur in classifying the facts, 
only as fast as he learns them. 

If this principle of teaching languages is under- 
stood, its application will be easy for instructers. A 
perfect development of the principle cannot be here 
given. It is merely suggested for consideration ; 
and if it is found correct, philosophical, and conso- 
nant to the laws of mind ; the detail will more 
properly follow. It may be remarked, however, on 
leaving the topick, that there are several methods of 
communicating the elements or obvious facts of a 
language, without even the sight of a grammar. 
That will come to aid in classifying the facts and 
knowledge of the language ; but those facts and that 
knowledge must be attained, before they can be clas- 
sified. The instructer may construe literally a few 
of the easiest passages or simplest sentences, which 
can be selected, and the learner be required to go 
over the same sentences by himself, till he has learn- 
ed to construe them without assistance. Or, per- 
haps a better method would be to select some easy 
and interesting story, perfectly within the compre- 



77 

hension of the pupil, so that the interest of the 
piece may aid in the recollection of the words. 
When a very few short stories of this kind have 
been learned in this manner, the child may be put 
to construe similar pieces alone, to the instructer, 
who will serve as a dictionary for the words, which 
have not occurred before, or are not remembered. 
The interest of the piece confines the attention, and 
the meaning of the words is acquired with astonish- 
ing rapidity. The necessity of making sense of 
the story, will oblige the pupil directly to observe, 
that as different terminations, or certain particles are 
used, different shades of meaning are expressed. 
And he will form his experience in the observation 
of facts into rules, as fast as he has such experience. 
Another method would be to put an easy book, 
with a perfectly literal translation, into the hand of 
the learner, and require him to learn a portion to 
recite without the translation. This gives a knowl- 
edge of the words, the first thing to be attained in 
the acquirement of a language. The particles, from 
their frequent occurrence, will be soon learned. 
And as they are supposed to be known to the pupil, 
the meaning of them may be left out of the translation. 
In the same manner, common words may be dropped 
from the translation, care being taken to always give 
the meaning of a new word, or a new sense of the 
same word, till it can be fairly supposed to be learn- 
ed. In this manner the inflections will be better 
understood than in any other method. For the 



78 

learner sees, at once, the different terminations, and 
the different relations of the words expressed by 
thern. 

During this stage with the pupil, the grammar and 
dictionary may be at hand, but they are to be con- 
sulted as a means of learning the lesson, and not to 
constitute the lesson itself. After an intimation 
from the instructer, that the grammar contains infor- 
mation, which may be useful ; and perhaps after a 
reference to it, by way of example to the pupil, let 
him consult it just as often as he pleases, and no 
oftener. If he does not find any aid from it in 
learning his lesson ; or feel the want of something 
of the kind, it will be of but little use, to drive him 
to it. But instead of wearing out some half dozen 
grammars, before he is advanced to any other book, 
and absolutely loathing the sight of one, it will be the 
very dearest book on the table. He will find all the 
inflections and rules laid down in the book so conso- 
nant with his own experience in the language, that 
he will be very much disposed to adopt that arrange- 
ment for the classification of his own knowledge. 

I take geography as another example, to illustrate 
what is meant by inductive instruction. It is se- 
lected, not because it affords any peculiar advantage 
in the application of this method of communicating 
knowledge ; but because it offers a convenient op- 
portunity to remark upon the leading principles, 
upon which books on the subject have been written ; 
and to acknowledge its increasing interest and im- 



79 

portance as an elementary study. Children are very 
early eapable of describing the places, mountains, 
and rivers, which pass under their inspection. And 
they commonly do it with an enthusiasm, which 
shows, how lively an interest they take in the sub- 
ject, and how deep an impression the peculiarities 
of new places make upon them. When they have 
learned, by actual perception, a few of the features 
of the face of the earth ; at a period a little later, 
they are capable of feeling a similar interest in form- 
ing a conception of places, mountains, rivers, &c. 
from representation and description. Then com- 
mences the study of geography. 

This is a branch of learning, which has been 
more neglected, than its importance deserves ; wheth- 
er we consider the value of the knowledge obtained, 
or whether we consider the adaptation of the study, 
to the early development of the mind. As commerce 
and letters multiply the mutual interests, relations, 
and dependencies of distant places, some knowledge 
of those places becomes almost indispensable to all 
professions and classes of society. Till within a 
few years, there has been but little order or arrange- 
ment in the books, which could be studied as text 
books. Facts and descriptions were selected, with 
no very great care or attention to their importance, 
and with less if possible to their authenticity. 
These materials were thrown together upon some 
plan adopted from the caprice of the author, but with 
not the least reference to the learner. Consequently, 



80 

the whole subject has been almost totally neglected, 
So much depends upon the manner, in which knowl- 
edge is presented to the understanding of the learner. 
But within these few years, improvements have 
been made, in the elementary books upon this sub- 
ject, which have brought it into notice. It is now 
very generally, though I am far from believing very 
successfully, taught in our schools. 

The manner of teaching it by question and an- 
swer, which is the manner adopted by the books 
most approved at present, is objectionable ; although 
it enables the young learner to seem to have acquired 
great knowledge of the subject. The questions di- 
rect the learner to the most important facts, no 
doubt, but that is of little consequence to him, so 
long as he is unable, or not prepared to comprehend 
them. He connects the question and its answer by 
some artificial association, and will repeat a passage, 
containing important information, with verbal accu- 
racy. To the hearers, who have already acquired a 
knowledge of the subject, and who attach to the 
words, a definite and correct meaning, the child 
seems to possess an astonishing fund of knowledge. 
But it is apprehended, that many a child, who thus 
delights and astonishes his parents, and gains his 
book and instructer great renown, would make as 
sorry a figure on a more careful examination, as the 
child mentioned by Miss Hamilton. After answer- 
ing to all his questions, and giving an accurate ac- 
count of the statisticks of Turkey, on being asked 



.81 

where Turkey was, a question not in the book, re- 
plied, u in the yard with the poults." 

The improvements in our school books, upon this 
subject, have consisted in greater attention and accu- 
racy in the collection of authentick and important 
facts, and in a more consistent arrangement of them. 
But by far the most important improvement is the 
introduction of maps. The principle of using maps, 
deserves the most unqualified approbation. For when 
the object and meaning of a map are thoroughly un- 
derstood by the pupil, it aids him to confine his atten- 
tion, and form a conception of the relative magnitude 
of continents, mountains, and rivers, and of the rela- 
tive situation of places, better than the most laboured 
descriptions, without such aid. But the principle of 
arrangement, upon which all the books upon this 
subject have been written, I beg leave to object to 
decidedly and strongly. The pupil is presented in 
the onset, with a map of the whole world, reduced 
to the size of a hat crown. In connexion with this, 
he is directed to read a description of the largest 
rivers, mountains, and seas ; and also to commit to 
memory some account of the character and manners 
of the principal nations. Perhaps he will now be 
required to learn the amount of exports and imports 
of the most commercial nations to the accuracy of a 
farthing. 

Some, not content with presenting the whole earth 
to the first and single glance of the young learner, and.. 
as if determined to push the absurdity of the plan to the 
11 



utmost, have given the whole solar system to the child, 
for his first lesson in geography. This is called 
setting up landmarks, and getting a general knowl- 
edge of the subject ; but so far from that, in my 
view, it is getting no knowledge at all. It is only a 
confusion of words, without any definite meaning 
attached to them. 

The subject is begun precisely at the wrong end. 
If it is addressed to the understanding of the young 
learner, this arrangement seems to presume, that he 
will take a deeper interest in, and better comprehend 
the general features of the world, embracing its largest 
mountains and rivers, and the characters of nations, of 
whose existence he has never before heard, than of the 
roads, hills, and rivers of his own neighbourhood, and 
the boundaries of his own town, county, or state. Be- 
sides, he can get no adequate idea of the magnitude of 
the largest mountains and rivers in the world, except 
by comparing them with the mountains and rivers, 
which he has seen, and of which he has formed some 
definite idea. 

In forming a conception of a distant mountain or 
river, which we have never seen, w T e proceed pre- 
cisely as we do in forming a conception of any other 
magnitude. We fix upon something of the same 
kind, which is known, as a unit of measure ; and 
then compare and discover the relation of what is 
known, with what is unknown. So the child could 
form some idea of a mountain twice as high as the 
hill before his eyes ; or he could form a tolerable 



conception of a river, three times as long and as 
broad, as the brook, which runs before his father's 
door, or the river, he may, perhaps, have seen in a 
neighbouring town ; but tell him, at once, the Him- 
maleh mountains in Asia, are 25,669 feet high ; and 
the river Amazon, in South America, extends S500 
miles in length, and empties into the ocean on the 
equator, from a mouth of 150 miles wide, and I am 
much mistaken, if he forms the least conception of 
what he is told. 

The correct plan for an elementary geography, 
would begin nearer home, with a description, and if 
practicable, with a map of the town, in which the 
young learner lives. Or if that is too particular for 
general use, the instructer must supply the descrip* 
tion ; and the map begin with his own county, or 
state, in which he will of course be most interested. 
From this he may proceed to his whole country or 
kingdom, and thence to more general divisions of the 
earth. The map will of course be reduced in its 
scale, and the descriptions grow less and less minute, 
as the places are farther removed ; or from any cause, 
are less interesting. If I have remarked with freedom 
on the state of books upon this subject, it has been 
without reference to persons, and with the single 
motive of inducing those authors, to whom we arc 
already indebted for many improvements, to examine 
their plans, and see if one cannot be adopted, more 
consonant to the principles of the youthful mind, 



LETTER VI. 



It would be easy to multiply examples of the in- 
ductive method of communicating knowledge upon 
other subjects, but I shall confine myself to one more. 
Arithmetick deserves the place, both because it affords 
an opportunity to obviate some of the prejudices, 
which exist against it, as a study for young learners ; 
and at the same time, to examine the leading features 
of a system, already before the publick, and written 
upon the principle to be illustrated. Improvements 
in the method of teaching numbers have been more 
slowly made, than in any other branch of elementary 
instruction. This can hardly be accounted for, ex- 
cept that the subject has always been considered one 
of peculiar and intrinsick difficulties, which could not 
be encountered successfully, but by those few minds, 
favoured of Heaven, with a sort of mathematical 
inspiration. 

Under such discouraging impressions, we need not 
be surprised, that no one has appeared to convince 
the publick by example, that the subject is not so 
intrinsically difficult, as has been imagined ; in fact, 
that it is completely level to any capacity, which can 
comprehend any subject. The consequence of the 
miserable state of the books, has been, that while ail 



85 

other branches have been gaining ground, and been 
better and better taught, arithmetick has lost, what 
other branches have gained ; and instead of being 
best and most successfully taught, as its importance 
demands, it has been the worst, and most carelessly 
taught. 

No adequate reason can be assigned for the declin- 
ing interest of arithmetick in our schools, for the last 
twenty years, but the vast disparity in improvements 
in the books on this, and other subjects. Some 
variety exists in the great abundance of elementary 
arithmeticks, but the same general principle of com- 
municating knowledge pervades them all. This prin- 
ciple is wrong. It is wrong, first, because it does not 
give the best knowledge of the subject ; and it is 
wrong, secondly, because it does not afford the best 
discipline to the mind. These are the only purposes, 
for which an elementary book is studied ; and a 
failure in both or either of these points, is capital, 
and fatal to the branch to be taught. The systems 
have been formed, no doubt, by good mathematicians, 
but the object of a school book, as has been before 
observed, is not to reduce the science to the fewest 
general principles, and state those principles, as a 
philosopher would arrange and state them for his own 
convenience. Adaptation to the mind, which is ac- 
quiring the science, must be ever kept in view, by 
the writer of a school book, which is destined to 
answer the only purposes for which it is written. 
The plan of all arithmeticks, till quite lately, has 



86 

been, to state the principle or rule to be taught in the 
most concise manner possible, and then arrange under 
it, examples of its application. This is called the 
synthetick, in contradistinction to the analytic method, 
which begins with examples, and at length arrives at 
a rule. Now the first part of the process by syn- 
thesis, cannot be said to give the best, if it can be 
said to give any knowledge of the subject. For, 
what is a learner wiser after he has committed the 
general principle or rule to his memory ? And it is 
impossible for him to do any thing more, without pre- 
supposing in him some knowledge of the subject. 
This operation in itself can, certainly, give him no 
knowledge ; because it is an abstract principle, stated 
in terms, of which he has probably never heard. And 
if he has no ideas attached to the principal terms, of 
which the sentence is composed, he cannot understand 
the relation of the ideas, intended to be expressed in 
the sentence. 

Should the learner, therefore, after committing a 
rule to his memory, be able to solve a question under 
it, the operation must be merely mechanical. He 
begins as the rule directs, and when he has read or 
said a sentence, he puts his finger upon the place, lest 
he should do the same thing again, and conforms 
literally with his direction. This done, he proceeds 
to read another sentence, and in like manner to 
comply with its direction, and at length out comes 
the answer. If any pupil is able to do better, than I 
have described, it is not because the rule, he has 



87 . 

committed, has made him able. He has not been 
called upon, in this process, to exercise any discrim- 
ination, judgment, or reasoning. It would be diffi- 
cult, in fact, to tell by what powers of the mind he 
has done it. So that, as a discipline to his mind, he 
has derived none, or very little advantage. The 
powers of the mind are strengthened only by exercise. 
He has acquired no knowledge of the subject, except 
perhaps, a greater facility in the mechanical operation. 
He applies a rule with as little knowledge of the 
principles of the science, as the man has, who works 
in a chemical laboratory by receipts. He forms a 
compound of certain elements, as directed by his 
receipt, and obtains the desired result. But no one 
would call him a chemist. This process does not 
constitute, or impart a knowledge of that science. 
That is gained only by a minute analysis of the parts, 
which are to enter into the compound, and the exam- 
ination of their affinities for each other. 

When the pupil has been worried through his 
arithmetick ; he is worried, because he cannot take 
pleasure in dwelling so long on what he does not in the 
least understand ; his mind is very little improved, for 
those faculties, which give the most decided character 
to a mind, have not been called into exercise. And he 
is hardly better prepared for the business of life, for he 
can neither remember the rule, nor the application of 
it. But the parent is satisfied, because the child has 
been through the book, and can repeat all the rules 
it contains ; and moreover, he ran flourish m the 



88 

application of any rule to the examples, which are 
put under it, and which his instructer has probably 
led him through again and again. The instructer is 
satisfied because the parent is ; and the pupil is 
doubly satisfied, on both accounts. But before any 
of the knowledge, which has been thus attained, can 
be very safely put into practice, it must be learned 
again, and rules for the individual must be arrived at, 
in the only legitimate method, viz : by induction of 
particular examples. In confirmation of this, if it 
needs confirmation, we need only refer to men of 
business. 

Who, that is actually engaged in mercantile life, 
thinks of applying the dogmatical rule, he has learned 
at school ? In the frequent occasions the merchant has 
for arithmetical calculations, he examines the particular 
case, and makes a rule for himself. In this respect 
the man of business is a much better philosopher, 
than the student, who must hunt up an analogous 
case, and produce his rule from a book. In this 
manner, the rules of a man of business will be made to 
correct his knowledge, and put it in a form convenient 
to be remembered, and not by any means to give the 
knowledge, as the usual method seems to intimate. 

All the evils, which result from a disgust of the 
study, from conveying inadequate ideas of the sub- 
ject, and from paralyzing in a degree, the opening 
powers of the mind, are removed, when it is presented 
in the natural and most philosophical manner. There 
is nothing in it peculiarly difficult. On the contrary, 



89 

when presented in a form adapted to the capacity 
of the learner, it lias peculiar interest with most 
young minds ; and is peculiarly calculated to call forth 
and strengthen their powers. On this point may be 
cited the opinions of some of the most acute observ- 
ers of any age, of the phenomena of mind. " Arith- 
metick," says Locke, "is the easiest, and conse- 
quently the first sort of abstract reasoning, which 
the mind bears or accustoms itself to ; and is of so 
general use in all parts of life and business, that 
scarce any thing is to be done without it."* " Would 
you have a man reason well," says the same author, 
" you must use him to it betimes ; exercise his mind 
in observing the connexion of ideas and following 
them in train. Nothing does this better than math- 
ematicks ; which, therefore, I think should be taught 
all those, who have time and opportunity, not so 
much to make them mathematicians, as to make 
them reasonable creatures. "f " For," he says again, 
" the business of education in respect of knowledge, 
is not to perfect a learner in all, or any one of the 
sciences, but to give his mind that freedom, that 
disposition, and those habits, that may enable him to 
attain any part of knowledge, he shall apply himself 
to, or stand in need of, in the future course of his 
life." A word from Dr. Watts. " Converse much," 
says he, in his work on the improvement of the 
mind, " with those friends, and those books, and 
those parts of learning, where you meet with the 

* Treatise on Education. f Conduct of the Understanding. 

12 



90 

greatest clearness of thought and force of reasoning. 
The mathematical sciences, and particularly Arith- 
nietick, Geometry, and Mechanicks, abound with 
those advantages ; and if there were nothing valua- 
ble in them, for the uses of human life, yet the very 
speculative parts of this sort of learning, are well 
worth our study ; for, by perpetual examples, they 
teach us to conceive with clearness, to connect our 
ideas in a train of dependence, to reason with 
strength and demonstration, and to distinguish be- 
tween truth and falsehood. Something of these sci- 
ences should be studied by every man, who pretends 
to learning." 

When, therefore, we consider the influence of 
arithmetical studies, in disciplining the mind ; when 
we estimate the utility of the knowledge to be 
gained, in the transaction of the various business of 
life ; and, especially, when we view the subject 
as lying at the foundation of the whole science of 
mathematicks ; or rather as the instrument, or key, 
without which we cannot proceed to the higher 
branches of the science, it rises to no small dignity 
among elementary studies. To all, it is important, 
to the man of business and the scholar, it is essen- 
tial. There is little danger, therefore, of examining 
too closely into the character of our books upon the 
subject. And there is, perhaps, as little danger of 
exposing too plainly the weakness and deformity of 
the bad, or of overestimating the value of the good. 



91 

The system of Arithmetick, to which I have be- 
fore alluded, and which it is proposed to examine, as 
I proceed, as a specimen of inductive instruction, 
was published a year or two since, " by Warren 
Colburn."* It is contained in two small volumes, 
entitled " First Lessons in Arithmetick upon the plan 
of Pestalozzi,"! and " Arithmetick, being a Sequel 

* It gives me great pleasure thus publicidy to acknowledge my 
obligations to Mr. Colburn, not only for the light, he has afforded 
me upon the subject of Arithmetick, but for what has been re- 
flected from that subject to others, which have been before no- 
ticed. 

tThe "First Lessons" profess to be "upon the plan of'Pesta-" 
lozzi." Some account therefore, of this remarkable man, will 
enable readers to judge, how far Mr. Colburn is indebted to him. 
for his system of Arithmetick. Pestalozzi was born at Zurich in 
1746. His parents were too obscure for him to inherit much 
consequence or notice on their account. He early became inter- 
ested in the subject of education, and viewing the miserable con- 
dition of the lower classes of the people in his neighbourhood, 
he resolved to devote himself to elementary instruction, as the 
most direct and effectual means of improving their situation and 
prospects. From the time he commenced instructer, he was so 
exclusively devoted to his employment, that he seemed to live 
only for that object. 

He made bold innovations upon the established principles of 
instruction, and probably on that account, did not at first receive 
such notice, as his exertions merited. But the ardour of his in- 
terest was not cooled by neglect. The aid of a few friends, who 
were attracted by the reasonableness of his principles of instruc- 
tion, and an inefficient patronage from the government of his 
Canton, enabled him to establish a school, which gave some ce- 
lebrity to his name, and at length gained the assistance of some 
very warm and able friends. Pestalozzi was a) length united 



92 

to First Lessons." Waving here the question of in- 
dependent authorship, which Mr. Colburn might 
with some propriety claim, I shall enter, at once, in- 

with Mr. de Fellenberg, who from similar motives had establish- 
ed a school at Hoffwyl. This school has attracted considerable 
notice in Europe, and has been approved, and encouraged by 
some of the most distinguished men of the age. 

The object of Mr. de Fellenberg was, to find a plan for the 
education of the poorer classes of society, at the least expense. 
Agriculture, therefore, constituted an essential part of the edu- 
cation. But the principles of government and instruction, adopt- 
ed at his school, succeeded so well, that pupils were sent from 
many of the principal families in every part of Europe. In con- 
junction with, and under the patronage of Mr. de Fellenberg, 
who was a gentleman of some fortune, Pestalozzi was enabled to 
carry his improvements in the principles of instruction, into 
more complete operation. It would be foreign to my present 
purpose, however interesting the subject, to go into the detail of 
that establishment. We are interested, at present, only in the 
method of instruction. 

It was a fundamental principle in their system, never to suffer 
a pupil to pass over, what he did not thoroughly comprehend. 
The course of instruction was so conducted, as to give accurate 
and well defined ideas upon the subject to be taught. For this 
object, the instructer gave lessons in the field ; and upon sub- 
jects, which there presented themselves. This manner excited 
and kept up a lively interest in the learner, because he saw at 
once the use and application of what he was learning. The in- 
structer was thus spared the perplexing question, " cui bono ?" 
which so constantly arises in the pupil's mind, and which can so 
seldom be satisfactorily answered. " Questions continually oc- 
curred respecting the measures of capacit} r , length, weight, and 
their fractional parts ; the cubic contents of a piece cf timber, 
or a stack of hay, the time necessary to perform any particular 
task, under such or such circumstances, &c. &c." The boys en- 



93 

to an examination of the general principles of the 
system; it being a much more interesting question, 
what the system is, than whose it is. The system 

deavoured to find the solution of arithmetical and mathematical 
problems without writing, and at the same time to proceed with 
the mechanical process, in which they might happen to be engaged. 
This method of instruction, among improvements in other 
branchts, gave rise to the plan of Arithmetick, invented by Pesta- 
lozzi. He began with the most simple combinations upon small 
numbers, and proceeded to the more difficult, as the learner ac- 
quired strength to encounter them. The language of figures, 
and their use in the solution of questions involving large num- 
bers, were reserved for a later and more difficult stage in their 
progress. These hints constitute the principal assistance, which 
Mr. Colburn derived from Pestalozzi, in forming his system of 
Arithmetick. He has adopted the arrangement of Pestalozzi in 
some of the combinations, but he has rejected it in others, and 
developed all, by the selection and composition of examples, in 
which he derived no assistance from him. Pestalozzi undoubted- 
ly discovered the applicability of the inductive method to com- 
municating knowledge, whether he knew it by that name or not 
and applied that method in teaching the science of numbers. 
Mr. Colburn, with hints from him, has applied the same method 
to teaching the same subject, but in a manner somewhat peculiar 
to himself. Both, in common with all the philosophers since 
Bacon, are indebted to him for telling them how to learn, and 
how to teach. And it would, perhaps, be better if Mr. Colburn 
would say at once, " Arithmetick upon the plan of Bacon," rath- 
er than adopt any name, which can only reflect, what it has re- 
ceived from him. The identity of the principles of this method 
of instruction, with the inductive method of acquiring knowledge, 
taught by Bacon, has never been established and inculcated by 
those, who have adopted the method as a basis for their books. 
[For a more full account of the establishment at Iloffuvl, see 
Ed. Rev. Oct. 1819j 'and Simond's Switzerland. Vol. ii. pp. 193 
194 and 330— 



94 

is new, and widely different, from any thing before 
published in this country. These circumstances, to- 
gether with the importance of the subject, and the 
happy illustration, it affords," of inductive instruction ; 
seem to require a pretty detailed account of it ; I 
shall confine myself, however, in my remarks, mere- 
ly to general principles, except so far as detail is es- 
sential to their illustration. 

The distinctive traits in the character of the sys- 
tem will be at once seen, by examining it under 
the following principal divisions — 

I. It teaches all the combinations in Arithmetick, 
with numbers so small, that the mind of the pupil 
can perfectly comprehend them. 

II. Every new combination is introduced by prac- 
tical examples upon concrete numbers. 

III. All those rules, which are merely artificial, 
and those formed for particular applications of the 
same general principle, have been discarded. 

The first principle above stated gives rise to the 
division of the subject into the " First Lessons" and 
" Sequel." The solution of every arithmetical 
problem requires two processes ; first, to analyze the 
question and determine the relation of the several 
numbers ; and then to reason upon those numbers, 
in a manner peculiar to the science, till the result re- 
quired is attained. These two processes must be 
performed in the solution of every problem ; but 
when the numbers are so small, as not to require the 
aid of a written numeration, they are both performed 



95 

together. That is, the relations of the numbers are 
discovered, at once, as fast as in the analysis, they 
are compared with each other. 

This division of the subject has never, to my 
knowledge, been made, in any system of arithme- 
tick, published in this country. And in consequence 
of presenting both processes in a combined form at 
first, neither has been very perfectly learned ; and 
the reasoning, which is the more important, both as 
a part of arithmetick, and as a discipline to the 
mind, has been least understood. At the age arith- 
metick is first put into the hands of a learner, the 
importance of having him attain clear ideas of his 
subject, can hardly be estimated. If a habit is 
contracted at this period, of being satisfied with 
loose, shadowy, and ill defined ideas, it will exercise 
a strong and pernicious influence, through the whole 
course of his education ; and perhaps produce a de- 
cided cast in the character of his mind. To coun- 
teract this habit, and form the contrary one of at- 
taining distinct ideas, and reasoning clearly upon 
every subject, the learner must be presented with 
such processes of reasoning only, as that he can 
perfectly comprehend every step in the process. 
This can be done in the science of numbers, only, 
by giving examples of reasoning upon small numbers, 
till the mind acquires sufficient strength to encounter 
more complicated combinations upon large numbers. 

The power of attention, which is so essential to 
every miud, and which it is so difficult for the young 



96 

mind to acquire or control, is more improved by 
arithmetical calculations, than by almost any disci- 
pline, which can be offered. And when it is once 
acquired by the study of numbers, it may be easily 
transferred to other studies ; and thus all the sciences 
derive an advantage, from the increased strength of 
a power, which few or none have so happy a tenden- 
cy to improve. 

The " First Lessons" introduce and inculcate eve- 
ry principle in arithmetick, by a collection of ex- 
amples, although not a rule is given in the book. 
It must not be imagined, however, that a mere col- 
lection of examples constitutes an inductive arithme- 
tick. To a superficial observer, it would seem no 
very difficult matter, to bring together examples to 
any extent. And if this were all. that is essential 
to a complete and successful induction, it would, in- 
deed, be easy, and quite within the power of any 
one, who has sufficient patience. But this is the 
least and the lowest of the efforts necessary to ac- 
complish such a work. The mind of him, who 
w r ould undertake to make a book of this kind, with 
any rational hope of success, must be capable to 
take in, at one view, the whole subject. He must 
resolve, without any reference to existing books, ar- 
rangements, or rules, the whole science into its first 
and essential principles. And be able to compre- 
hend these, in all their relations and dependencies 
upon each other. For they cannot be successfully 
developed, except in the order 01 such dependence. 



97 

And when by the exercise of no common share of 
acuteness, these elementary and essential principles 
are arranged in their natural order ; the mass of ex- 
amples must be carefully examined and assorted, for 
the development of each principle, and for each com- 
bination of principles. The work is still but pro- 
gressing. The examples thus assorted according to 
the principles involved in them, must be again ex- 
amined and arranged with reference to the young 
mind, which is to encounter them. A neglect or 
failure in this point would be as fatal as in any other. 
From this view of the subject, it would seem no 
humble labour, to produce a consistent book upon 
such a plan. And the author may congratulate him- 
self, and the publick may well congratulate him, if 
he gets through such a work, without making some, 
nay, many mistakes. 

Upon this plan, the pupil learns the reasoning, and 
not the technical name for it. And, I am much 
mistaken, if the child or youth, who has carefully 
analyzed every example in this little book, (which 
claims to be only first lessons,) and found the an- 
swer in his own way, has not a better knowledge of 
fractions in all their combinations, and in fact, of 
every principle of arithmetick, than it would be pos- 
sible for him to gain, by reading the most elaborate 
treatise on the synthetick plan. The little reasoner 
will not dare to say he has learned Addition, Sub- 
traction, Multiplication, and Division ; Interest, Sin- 
gle Rule of Three, and Double Rule of Three ; for 
13 



98 

he has probably never heard of half these terms. 
But propose him a question under either of those 
rules, involving only numbers within his comprehen- 
sion, and he will analyze the problem, and perform 
every operation in the solution distinctly, and give 
you the correct result. And if he is called to it, he 
will explain the why and wherefore of every step in 
the process. 

Now, when parents leave off insisting, that their 
children's memories shall be burthened with a confu- 
sion of rules, which they do not in the least under- 
stand, and which it requires all the energy of the 
young mind to retain ; and when they become con- 
tented, that their powers of mind are developing in 
their natural order, and as fast as the God of nature 
intended they should be developed, we may expect 
this subject to become more interesting to young 
learners, and to be more scientifically and success- 
fully taught. 

After the power of attention is strengthened, and 
habits of discrimination and analysis are in some de- 
gree formed, by examples on small numbers ; the 
next thing to be learned is, a knowledge of the arbi- 
trary signs or figures, and their use in facilitating our 
reasoning upon large numbers. This is taught in the 
" Sequel," which adds what is necessary to com- 
plete the science of arithmetick. The " Sequel" is 
divided into two parts. The first contains examples 
only ; and those arranged, as in the " First Lessons," 
in the order of their dependence upon each other. 



99 

And if the principles, by which the examples are 
to be solved, have no dependence, they are arranged 
in the reversed order of the difficulty a learner will 
be likely to encounter, in their solution. This ar- 
rangement enables the learner to bring the increased 
strength of his mind, at each advance, to bear upon 
the more difficult parts of his subject. The second 
part contains an analytical development of the prin- 
ciples, and is to be studied in connexion with the 
first. When the learner has performed the exam- 
ples in the first part, which involve a principle, he is 
turned to the second part, and there sees the same 
principle developed in an abstract form, till at 
length he arrives at a rule, which he can now com- 
prehend, because he has learned all the variety of 
particular examples, to which the rule is applicable. 
The rule is now, no more than a verbal generalisa- 
tion of what he has already learned : and it is the 
last thing he arrives at in order, instead of the first, 
as in all other systems. The separation of the ex- 
amples, and the analytical development of the prin- 
ciples, into two separate parts of the work, is arbi- 
trary, and not at all essential to it, as a specimen of 
induction. It would be as convenient for the pupil, 
to arrive at his rule at the end of his examples, as to 
be turned to a different part of the book. Although 
in this form, it would be more difficult to see, at 
once, the outline of the subject. 

The method of putting the examples before, and 
as a means of arriving at the rule, is undoubtedly the 



100 

correct one, for all subjects, which are to be learned 
by induction ; but all subjects are not so to be learned. 
The language of arithmetick, including notation and 
numeration, is not a subject to be learned by expe- 
rience. The signification of the digits, 1, 2, 3, &c, 
is arbitrary, and the laws, by which they are used in 
reasoning upon numbers, are arbitrary. The meaning 
of figures, and the laws, by which they are used, are 
agreed upon by arithmeticians, and he, who ap- 
proaches the subject of arithmetick, must first be ini- 
tiated into the meaning of the signs and symbols 
peculiar to the science. Mr. Colburn's system in 
one instance, violates this principle. It requires the 
learner to write in words, examples of large numbers 
expressed in figures, before it teaches him numeration. 
It would be impossible for a learner to " write in 
words 270,000,838,103,908," before he had been 
told the meaning of these signs, and the laws, by 
which they are made significant of different numbers? 
as they occupy different places. 

In the corresponding article, in the second part, 
Mr. Colburn has given the subject a thorough inves- 
tigation. And I have never seen so intelligible a 
treatise on numeration as is there contained in a few 
pages. It may be suggested to him, to make some 
different arrangement, in the future editions of his 
book, by which this departure from the plan of never 
presenting a difficulty, which the learner is not com- 
petent to surmount, shall be remedied. 



101 



LETTER VII. 



The second distinctive characteristick of the in- 
ductive system of arithmetick, which I proposed in 
the preceding letter to examine, is this ; — Every new 
combination is introduced, by practical examples 
upon concrete numbers. This, together with the 
principle of always beginning with numbers so small, 
that the mind of the learner can perfectly compre- 
hend them, constitute an essential part of what is 
peculiar to the inductive system. The resonableness 
of the principle above laid down, will be more appa- 
rent, when I have attempted an analysis of the process 
of abstraction performed in the mind of a child in its 
first attempts to reason upon numbers. 

Abstraction is one of the last, as well as most diffi- 
cult processes, which the young mind performs. The 
plan, therefore, of introducing every new combination, 
by examples upon concrete numbers, is the dictate of 
sound philosophy. It has its origin in the phenomena 
of the human mind, and is consonant with their gen- 
eral and acknowledged laws. 

Perception is a power earlier developed in the mind 
of a child, than conception. It is much easier, to 
attain the perception of an object, which is presented 
to the senses, than to form a conception of the same 



102 

object, when it is withdrawn from their cognizance. 
The importance of calling out the tender powers of 
mind by judicious discipline, in the order nature has 
pointed out, has never been, and hardly can be suf- 
ficiently estimated. The science of numbers is an ab- 
stract science ; but the first ideas of number must be 
derived from things. And nature has made three pretty 
distinct steps, in the process of abstracting the num- 
bers from the things, to which they are always at 
first attached. The first, when the objects are pre- 
sent to the senses, to which the numbers to be rea- 
soned upon are applied. The second, when those 
objects are absent from the senses, and the mind must 
form some conception of them, as something to, 
which to attach the numbers. The third, is what is 
properly called abstraction, and loosens, if it may be 
so called, the numbers from every object; and the 
mind reasons upon them, without reference to any- 
thing existing. 

To follow the course, which nature has pointed out 
in the development of the mind, these steps in the 
process of abstraction should be kept distinct, by ex- 
ercising the learner upon them in the order, in which 
they rise from each other. For this reason, it is im- 
portant that the child, in its first essays to reason 
upon numbers, should always have some external ob- 
jects, to which he may attach his numbers, present to 
the senses. This stage in the science of numbers, 
a science, which by one abstraction and generalisa- 
tion after another ends in Algebra and the higher 



103 

branches of Mathematicks, is level to the capacity 
of a child, almost as soon as he can speak. This 
approach to reasoning upon abstract numbers, al- 
though it is one of the best exercises, which can be 
offered to a voting mind, has never been made a part 
of mental discipline. The fault has been, in some 
degree, supplied by chance and the natural propen- 
sity of the mind to proceed philosophically in its 
acquirements. In a more correct system of disci- 
pline for very young learners, this desideratum can- 
not fail to be supplied. Exercises in calculation by 
means of sensible objects, have a most salutary in- 
fluence upon the mind of a child. They confine 
the attention, and quicken the perceptions, at an age 
when it is most difficult to select employments, which 
do not involve powers of the mind not yet developed. 
The second stage in the process of abstraction, or 
forming a conception of absent objects, to which to 
attach numbers, and reasoning upon the numbers, in 
this connexion, is the one, with which this system 
introduces all the combinations in arithmetick ; " care 
being taken to select such examples, as will show 
the combination in the most simple manner." The 
attention is confined during the reasoning, by attach- 
ing the numbers to a vivid conception of absent ob- 
jects, and the feeble powers of the youthful mind, 
are thus enabled to go through a process of reason- 
ing, which could not otherwise he endured." The 

* I do not notice the Maps, which accompany the system as 
taught, both by Pestalozzi and Colburn, because I think them "i 



104 

application of this combination may then be put to 
the pupil, in some example involving large numbers, 
with a more rational hope, that he will better under- 
stand, both what he wishes to do, and the means of 
doing it. 

This principle of introducing new combinations 
with concrete numbers, has never before been car- 
ried into arithmetick. But an analogous principle 
is recognised in studying Geography by maps, and 
Astronomy by a globe or orrery. These helps only 
aid the mind, in forming a conception of the relative 
magnitude of rivers, mountains, and the heavenly 
bodies, from description. The same principle is 
recognised in all our attempts to make an abstruse 
and difficult subject, understood by others. If we 
wish to explain any transaction between several 
men; we immediately suppose you to be one of the 
characters, him, another, and myself, a third ; and 
thus by the aid of these sensible objects, we can ex- 
plain any complicated transaction between three men. 

at least doubtful utility. When the pupil has reasoned by them- 
a time, and learned to solve questions upon them, he is required 
all at once to suppose them to vanish, and reason upon the num- 
bers without them. But the association will have become so 
strong, that this abstraction will cost more trouble to the pupil, than 
if in his progress, he had used a variety of objects for the pur- 
pose ; thus learning by example, that the objects, by which he 
reasons, may be constantly changing, while the reasoning re- 
mains precisely the same. This enables him to form the abstrac- 
tion with less difficulty. I have not been able to test this part 
of the system by experience, and therefore, pronounce upon it 
with more hesitation. 



105 

If a jurist, for example, wishes to explain the le- 
gal descent of property through different branches of 
a family, to one not familiar with the subject, he 
does not state the principle in an abstract form, using 
all the technical terms of his profession, which would 
be precisely analogous to the common method of 
teaching numbers ; but he immediately presses the 
whole company into his service. He supposes this 
man, a son ; another, a brother ; a third, a grandson, 
and so on, till he has represented every branch of 
the family by some present person ; and then in con- 
nexion with these persons, he illustrates his principle 
clearly, and the supposed family resume their former 
relations, with a perfect knowledge of the abstract 
principle to be communicated. 

This method of communicating an abstract prin- 
ciple, is just as applicable to elementary arithmetick, 
as any other subject ; and it is even more important 
in this application, than any other. No processes of 
reasoning for children are more complicated, than 
those of arithmetick. There are none, where the 
young mind requires more helps, to enable it to pur- 
sue its course, without distraction or interruption. 
Is it not because this facility in communicating 
knowledge has not been applied to arithmetick, that 
that study has been pronounced intrinsically difficult, 
and far beyond the capacity of young learners ? 
And with this impression, the whole subject has been 
wrapt in mystery as unintelligible, as the hieroglyph- 
icks of the Egyptian Magi. 
14 



106 

This improvement will ultimately give to arithme- 
tiek its proper rank and dignity, among elementary 
studies. The third stage or abstraction, properly so 
called, loses sight altogether of any particular ob- 
jects, and the mind reasons upon the numbers alone. 
This is where all have, heretofore, taken up the 
subject. And the evils of the method have been 
long and severely felt. 

The third characteristick, which I proposed to ex- 
amine, it will be recollected, is the following : 

All those rules, which are merely artificial, and 
those formed for particular applications of the 
same general principle, have been discarded. Such 
rules make the largest, and by far the most difficult 
part of the common systems of arithmetick. Any 
arrangement, therefore, by which they disappear in 
form and name, will seem, to superficial observers, 
to change the identity of the subject. But such 
may be assured, that notwithstanding the great 
transformation in the looks of arithmetick, the 
whole subject remains. 

The arrangement of the system by analysis and 
induction is according to principles, and not accord- 
ing to subjects, as in other books. * 

A thorough knowledge of general principles, and 
the habit of analyzing, which this system is so em- 

* Mr. Colburn shall state his own arrangement. " In tracing 
the principles, several distinctions have been made, which have 
not generally been made. They are principally in division of 
whole numbers, and in division of whole numbers by fractions, 



107 

inently calculated to give, will better prepare the 
mind for the examples which occur in life, than the 
multiplication of complicated rules, so nearly alike, 
that much discrimination is required to distinguish 
them. The rules of Barter, Loss and Gain, Fel- 
lowship, Equation of Payments, and Alligation are 
not recognised by name, according to this arrange- 
ment. But the principles necessary to the solution 

and fractions by fractions. There are some instances also of 
combinations being classed together, which others have kept sep- 
arate. 

" As the purpose is to give the learner a knowledge of the 
principles, it is necessary to have the variety of examples under 
each principle as great as possible. The usual method of ar- 
rangement, according to subjects, has been on this acount entirely 
rejected, and the arrangement has been made according to prin- 
ciples. Many different subjects come under the same principle ; 
and different parts of the same subject frequently come under 
different principles. When the principles are well understood, 
very few subjects will require a particular rule, and if the pupil 
is properly introduced to them, he will understand them better 
without a rule than with one. Besides, he will be better prepared 
for the cases which occur in business, as he will be obliged to meet 
them there without a name. The different subjects, as they are 
generally arranged, often embarrass the learner. When he 
meets with a name with which he is not acquainted, and a rule at- 
tached to it, he is frequently at a loss, when if he saw the example 
without the name, he would not hesitate at all. 

" The manner of performing examples will appear new to 
many, but it will be found much more agreeable to the practice 
of men of business, and men of science generally, than those 
commonly found in books. This is the method of those that un- 
derstand the subject. The others were invented as a substitute 
for understanding." [Sequel, preface, pp. vii. and viii.] 



of questions, usually put under these rules, are fully 
illustrated. The learner finds himself solving all 
such questions, with the utmost facility, in the most 
philosophical manner, without even knowing, that 
such rules exist by name. I subjoin a few examples 
of questions, solved by the complicated and artificial 
rules of the most popular books, and then add the 
same questions solved by analysis. Readers shall 
then judge, which method is most expeditious and 
philosophical.* 

* I select examples from an " Arithmetick, by Daniel Adams, 
M. B." because they are fair specimens of the common 
method, and because this book has been more generally adopted 
in New-England, and more widely circulated over the whole 
continent, than any other. Between 1802 and 1815, "it had 
been through nine editions, and more than 40,000 copies of it had 
been circulated." At that time, it was stereotyped, and I fear 
my knowledge of numeration would not enable me to state the 
numbers, with which the publick have since been afflicted. This 
book owes its popularity precisely to that trait in its character, 
which ought, in the onset, to have condemned it to oblivion. It 
degrades the whole science of arithmetick to a mechanical art. 
As a discipline to the mind of the learner, therefore, it is useless, 
and worse than useless. It calls into exercise no power of the 
mind, but memory, and requires the practice of no virtues but 
faith mid patience : faith to believe all that is stated, for nothing 
is analyzed or proved ; and patience to labour so long in the 
dark, without ever understanding, or coming to the light. The 
principles of the science, the development of which constitutes 
the chief excellence of any system, cannot be disentangled by 
the learner, from the useless forms, in which they are involved. 
The pupil never thinks of any thing but doing his " sums," and 
getting through the book. It is difficult to dwell with any com- 
placency or patience on the fact, that so many of these books 



109 

A man bought 12 cords of wood at 3 dollars per 
cord, and paid for it with flour at 6 dollars per barrel. 
How many barrels of flour did he give ? . 

It seems necessary to beg my readers not to spoil 
my illustration, by solving the above problem at once, 
before they have been taught to do it by rule. In 
the first place, this question belongs to a rule called 
" Barter," and it is proper they should commit to 
memory a definition of Barter. Here it is. " Bar- 
ter is exchanging one commodity for another, and 
teaches merchants" (I suppose no one else has a right 
to know it) " so to proportion their quantities that 
neither shall sustain loss." 

When this definition is well committed, my read- 
ers are permitted to learn by heart, the following 
RULES. 

" 1. When the quantity of one commodity is 
given with its value, or the value of its integer, as 
also the value of the integer of some other com- 
modity to be exchanged for it, to find the quantity 
of this commodity : — Find the value of the com- 
modity of which the quantity is given, then find how 

have been so long suffered to waste and pervert the precious 
time of those, who have but little time, at most, to bestow upon 
the subject. The public are intreated to look into the claims of 
this book to such overwhelming patronage ; and to examine it 
thoroughly, botb in regard to the knowledge it gives of the sub- 
ject, and the discipline it affords the mind. For nothing but 
a misapprehension of the subject, — of the purposes of a school 
book, — and the principles of the human mind, will excuse the 
mischief, it is allowed to do the comnninitv. 



110 

much of the other commodity, at the rate proposed, 
may be had for that sum. 

"2. If the quantities of both commodities be 
given, and it should be required to find how much 
of some other commodity, or how much money 
should be given for the inequality of their values : 
— Find the separate values of the two given com- 
modities, subtract the less from the greater, and the 
remainder will be the balance, or value of the other 
commodity. 

" 3. If one commodity is rated above the ready 
money price, to find the bartering price of the oth- 
er :■ — Say, as the ready money price of the one, is 
to the bartering price, so is that of the other to its 
bartering price." 

Now under which of the above cases does the 
question come ? Here I leave my readers in the 
midst of the difficulty ; — and without wasting time 
in tracing analogies, solve the question without any 
reference to a rule. Twelve cords of wood, at 
three dollars per cord, will cost thirty-six dollars, and 
it will take as many barrels of flour, at six dollars 
per barrel, as there are sixes in thirty-six. There is 
no great trouble in arriving at an answer. 

I shall not regret obliging my readers to learn so 
much mathematicks, at such an expense of patience, 
if I convince them by example of the trouble of it ; 
and may assure them at the same time, this is precise- 
ly what thousands and thousands of learners in our 
schools, are doing every day. An example involv- 



Ill 

ing small numbers, only, was selected to make the 
illustration more plain. The reasoning would be the 
same, however large the numbers. The same diffi- 
culties are experienced in numerous rules, but this 
single example will suffice to expose the difficulties 
and suggest the remedies. 

Could I enter into a detailed examination of the 
execution of the inductive system of Mr. Colburn, 
much would be found, to show a profound knowledge 
of the subject, as well as of the powers and princi- 
ples of mind, to which it is adapted. A few faults 
might be detected by a vigilant and scrutinizing eye. 
But as I am obliged, by the circumstances under 
which I write, to confine myself to general princi- 
ples, and forbear to enlarge upon the excellencies in 
execution, justice requires me to abstain from the 
faults. 



LETTER VIII. 



There is one result from the arrangement of 
arithmetick by general principles, so important, that 
it demands particular consideration. The Rule of 
Three is entirely omitted. Those, who first learn- 
ed arithmetick mechanically, and have never thought 



112 

©f it except in connexion with its forms, will start 
at so bold an innovation ; and think of course, that 
a rule, which has been dignified with the name of 
the Golden Rule, and which takes up with all its 
modes, no inconsiderable portion of their books, can- 
not be omitted, without omitting something essential 
to the subject. This is not the fact. The omission 
is an essential improvement. But this is being posi- 
tive without proof. Objections will, no doubt, be 
started. So far as they can be anticipated, they 
shall be met under the two heads of the possibility, 
and the expediency of the omission. 

First. It will be possible to dispense with the rule, 
if all questions which are now solved by it, can be 
solved by other rules, or by general principles. This 
is a position pretty easily sustained. I offer four 
examples, which present all the variety that can oc- 
cur under the Golden Rule. 

The first is an example of the "Rule of Three 
Direct ;" the second, of the " Rule of Three In- 
verse ;" the third is an example of direct proportion 
in " Double Rule of Three ;" and the fourth, of 
" Inverse Proportion," of the same rule. 

1. If a family consume -f of a barrel of flour in 
3 weeks, how many barrels would they consume in 
15 weeks ? s 

Analysis. If they consume -f- of a barrel in 5 
weeks, they will consume one third as much, or T 4 7 of 
a barrel, in one week ; and if they consume -^-of a 



113 

barrel in one week, they will consume 15 times as 
much, or ~, equal to 4 barrels, in 15 weeks. 

2. If 3 men do a piece of work in 7 days, how 
long will it take 5 men to do the same work ? 

Analysis. If 3 men do the work in 7 days, it will 
take one man three times as long, or 21 days ; and if it 
take 1 man 21 days, 5 men will do the same work in 
y of the time, or y of a day, equal to 4 T days. 

3. If the interest of $50 for 2 months is $3, what 
will be the interest of $30 for 5 months ? 

Analysis. If the interest of any sum of money 
for 2 months, is 3 dollars, the interest of the same 
sum for 1 month will be ^ as much, or 4- of a dollar; 
and if -f of a dollar is the interest of $50, the in- 
terest of 1 dollar will be ~ as much, or y-f-y of a 
dollar ; if y§y of a dollar is the interest of 1 dollar 
for 1 month, the interest of $30 will be thirty times 
as much, or T 9 -°- of a dollar, and for 5 months it will 
be 5 times as much, or -f-^, equal to$4,50. 

4. If 8 dollars' worth of provision serve 7 men 5 
days ; how many days will 16 dollars' worth of pro- 
vision last 4 men ? 

Analysis. If any quantity of provision will serve 
7 men 5 days, it will serve one man 7 times as long, 
or 35 days ; if 8 dollars' worth serve one man 35 
days, one dollar's worth will serve him but |- as long, 
or y of a day, 16 dollars' worth will serve him 16 
times as long, or ' 6 * 3 5 , equal to 70 days ; and the 
same provision can serve 4 men but y as long or ~°, 
equal to 17 T days. 
15 



114 

These examples of analysis, which are spread 
out to their full length, demonstrate the entire prac- 
ticability of solving, upon general principles, every 
question, which can occur under the rule of single 
or compound proportion. Small numbers were se- 
lected, only, because the analyses would be better 
understood ; the reasoning would be the same, how- 
er large the numbers. 

Secondly. It will not be expedient to omit the 
form of the rule of three, unless the substitute offer- 
ed is more expeditious, more philosophical, and 
better adapted to the future progress of the learner, 
in the higher branches of mathematicks. 1. While 
the numbers involved in questions of the rule of three 
are small, the calculation will always be carried on 
in the mind, without any reference to the form the 
rule prescribes. If the numbers are large, the ques- 
tion must be examined in the same manner, and when 
it is sufficiently understood, to know what operations 
are necessary to discover the relation of the numbers, 
the learner may as well proceed, forthwith, to the 
solution, as to make a parade of proportion ; for 
every step in the solution is as essential after the 
statement as before. Placing the numbers in a line 
with a certain number of points among them, is alto- 
gether arbitrary. It would be just as well to place 
the numbers in the corners of the slate or paper, and 
then multiply the numbers in diagonal corners, 
and divide by the odd number, and put the quotient, 
or answer, in the other coiner. Indeed, if the form 



115 

of proportion is to be considered useful or essential, 
this arrangement is preferable on some accounts. It 
does not lead the pupil to suppose the truth or an- 
swer is elicited, somehow, slyly, by virtue of those 
little dots, he puts among his numbers. 

2. The method of solution upon general principles, 
is more philosophical ; because in the operation, the 
mind is intent only on discovering the relation of the 
numbers ; whereas, in the formality of a proportion 
at length, the attention is divided between circum- 
stances and forms, which are of no importance to the 
solution, and those principles which are essential. 
That method cannot be called philosophical, which 
fixes the attention on a. form, and induces neglect of the 
only part of the process, which is important. Besides, 
if the form must be presented, it is made more artificial 
and unphilosophical, in all the popular books, than is 
necessary. A common method is ; " State the ques- 
tion by making that number, which asks the ques- 
tion, the third term, or putting it in the third place ; 
that which is of the same name or quality as the 
demand, the first term ; and that which is of the same 
name or quality with the answer required, the second 
term." This rule gives explicit directions for a me- 
chanical operation ; for all the knowledge of the prin- 
ciples of the rule, the pupil gets by it, he might as 
well have learned hocus pocus. Take an example, 
and state it by the rule. 



116 
" If 9lbs. of tobacco cost 6s. what will 251bs. 



cost ? 




OPERATION. 




lbs. s. lbs. 




As 9 : 6 : : 25 to the answer. 




25 




30 


Here 251bs. is made 


12 


the third term according 


_, — . 


to the rule, by being put 


9)150(16s. 8d. 


in the third place, for no 


9 


better reason than be- 


— 


cause it asks the ques- 


60 


tion, (what will 251bs. 


54 


cost ?) ; 91bs. being of 


— 


the same name is the 


6 


first term ; the 6s. must 


12 


occupy the remaining 


— 


place. 


9)72(8d. 




72 





00 
Now " multiply the second and third terms togeth- 
er and divide by the first." Why ? My readers can 
probably tell ; but it is very certain, that the youth, who 
is just entering upon the subject, can assign no better 
reason for it, than because the rule says so. He has 
no more conception of what this step, in particular, 
has to do with obtaining the answer, than the natives 
had of Columbus' means of predicting an eclipse. 
And he ought to be as much astonished if he gets 
the true answer, as they were, when the event hap- 



117 

pened according to his prediction. If this is philoso- 
phy, I do not understand what that term means. I 
should call it catching the truth by legerdemain. 

To assign as a reason for such statement, that the 
" first term has the same ratio to the second, as the 
third has to the fourth," is, if possible, more unphilo- 
sophical. It is not only ridiculous, but absurd. A 
ratio, that is, any ratio, which relates to the rule of 
three, is the number of times one quantity is contain- 
ed in another of the same kind. It is just as absurd 
to talk of the ratio of pounds weight, and shillings, as 
it would be to talk of buying a week of salt, instead 
of a bushel ; or a yard of wine instead of a gallon. 
A ratio subsists between the figures, which express 
the number of units in one quantity, whatever be the 
unit of measure, and the figures, which express the 
number of units in another quantity, however differ- 
ent the unit of measure. That is to say, 5 is equal 
to 5, and is half 10. No one doubts this ; but when 
the numbers are made concrete, by attaching to 
them particular denominations, it becomes absurd 
to say, 5 pecks are equal to 5 days ; or that 5 pounds 
are half of 10 yards. This absurdity, which dis- 
gusts the learner, if he is sufficiently inquisitive to 
ask for reasons for what he is doing, is avoided, by 
a solution upon general principles. 

The same question solved by analysis, would be 
reasoned upon thus. If 91bs. cost 6s., lib. must cost 
-i as much, or -| of a shilling ; and if lib. cost -| of a 
shilling, 251bs. will cost 25 times as much, or * s f\ 



118 

equal to J J-° of a shilling, In this method, although es- 
sentially the same operations are performed upon the 
numbers, the pupil understands the reason of every 
step, and can tell, precisely, what approach he makes 
by it, to the true answer. Whereas, by the formali- 
ty of a proportion, he does not know the object of 
any particular step. He only knows that by per- 
forming certain mechanical operations, he obtains an 
answer like the book. The proportion is a sort of 
crucible, into which he throws his numbers, and by 
a process altogether as unintelligible to him as shak- 
ing the crucible, he gets the desired result. He has 
no means of knowing whether the result is correct, 
but by comparing it with the book. But by analy- 
sis, he has intuitive knowledge at each step, and is 
as certain of his conclusion, as he is that two and 
two are four. 

3. But one objection more can be anticipated to 
the system of arithmetick, which discards the formal 
rule of three. The doctrine of proportions has been 
considered very important, if not essential to the 
higher branches of mathematics. And all the books 
upon Geometry and Algebra, and all which treat of 
their application to the physical sciences, are filled 
with them. They are not only made the great in- 
strument of reasoning, but they constitute of them- 
selves, in all their modes and forms, a great part of 
all systems of arithmetick, geometry, and algebra. 
It is certain, a scholar would not be able to read the 
books on the higher branches of the pure and mixed 



119 

mathematics, without a knowledge of proportions, at 
least, sufficient to translate them into more intelligi- 
ble language. But the French mathematicians, who 
have pursued the science more successfully than 
any others, for the last century, have long since pro- 
nounced the formal proportion unnecessary. Lacroix, 
who understands the subject of mathematicks, if he 
does not the best method of teaching it, after stating 
the doctrine of proportions in all their modes and 
forms ; says, " This theory was invented for the pur- 
pose of discovering certain quantities by comparing 
them with others. Latin names were for a lonjr time 
used to express the different changes or transforma- 
tions, which a proportion admits of. We are begin- 
ning to relieve the memory of the mathematical stu- 
dent from so unnecessary a burden ; and this parade 
of proportions might be entirely superseded by sub- 
stituting the corresponding equations, which would 
give greater uniformity to our methods, and more 
precision to our ideas."* 

Clearness and precision in our ideas are important 
on all subjects ; on the subject of mathematics, they 
are essential. On moral questions, we balance prob- 
abilities, and found our belief on a preponderance of 
evidence ; but in mathematics, we have demonstra- 
tion or nothing. If one step in the process of dem- 
onstration comes short of intuitive knowledge, the 
demonstration is destroyed. Here, then, a want of 
clearness and precision, is a want of knowledge. And 

* Lacroix's Alg. Camb. Edit. p. 234. 



120 

if abolishing the parade of proportions will give more 
precision, it is certainly desirable, that the}' should 
be struck out of our books. The object is so impor- 
tant, and the effect so certain, that the improvement 
must ultimately prevail. The only reason why they 
have been retained so long is, that no one wishes the 
trouble of writing over again all the books. Propor- 
tions hold their place in the mathematical books, pre- 
cisely by the same tenure, which retains radical 
signs as a means of expressing roots in algebra. No 
one, who has attended to the subject, will doubt, that 
fractional exponents are a much more convenient and 
intelligible method of expressing the same thing. 
Still the change in the books would be so very con- 
siderable, that no one has yet undertaken to suppress 
radical signs. The manner of representing the truth 
may be totally indifferent to adepts in the science, 
but to one just entering upon the subject, it is highly 
important. He has enough to encounter in the diffi- 
culties of the science, without being embarrassed by 
an unintelligible language. And when more just 
views are entertained of the importance of adapting 
the science to the capacity of the learner, there can be 
no doubt, that both these improvements will find their 
wav into the mathematical books. The temporary 
evil of changing the mode of expression is, surely, no 
sufficient reason for retaining what is acknowledged 
an obscure and troublesome notion. And if the 
change is ever to be introduced, it must be begun in 



121 

the very first books, which are put into the hands of 
children. 

I am now done for the present, with the princi- 
ples of instruction. If any apology is due for the 
length, to which the discussion has been protracted, 
that apology will be found in the importance of 
the subject. The principles, which have been stat- 
ed and illustrated, have a most important bearing 
upon existing books and systems of education. If 
they are correct and philosophical, there are some 
great and radical defects, which are intimately inter- 
woven with our best plans for instruction, and which 
call loudly for attention and reformation. Although 
the principles have been acknowledged by high au- 
thority ; it is not upon that, they must mainly depend. 
Are they consonant with the known phenomena and 
laws of mind ; and will they stand the test of the 
touchstone of experience ? If so, they are worthy 
to be adopted ; if not, they ought to be rejected. 
If we estimate authority by its antiquity, — if princi- 
ples are to be received with meek submission, accord- 
ing as they have held a sway longer and wider over 
the opinions of men, the odds are fearfully against 
us. But this reverence for antiquity, which it is al- 
most profanity to question or violate, although it 
proves a salutary check upon rash innovation, is also 
a troublesome barrier against wholesome improve- 
ment. How else is it, that amidst the vast improve- 
ments in all other sciences, the science of instruc- 
tion remains so stationary, upon the ground it occih 
16 



122 

pied, two thousand years ago. The empire of mind 
has been widely extended, both over itself, and over 
the material world. But the progress is still slow. 
Bacon has thrown forward an anchor, with which 
the world have not yet come up. And if our schol- 
ars and philosophers will consent to seize hold and 
pull, they will produce a much more sensible mo- 
tion, than to be hoisting their sails and flourishing 
their pennants in a dead calm. 

The science of instruction is the sphere, and our 
country is the place for free and unembarrassed exer- 
tion. Hope certainly gives us a bright and animat- 
ing prospect in the distance. The subject of educa- 
tion has never excited so deep and lively an interest, 
in every part of our country, as at present. If this 
interest can be directed by the wisdom and experi- 
ence of the more enlightened, it cannot fail of a 
great, and a happy effect. The importance of the 
subject has long since been felt ; the time has come, 
when attention should be turned to the nature of it. 
We may then hope for those improvements, of which 
the subject is susceptible ; and those splendid results 
in the state of society, which the more ardent and phi- 
lanthropick anticipate. But science now sits solemn 
in her temple afar off. The ways of approach are 
dark and devious. A few votaries, only, by chance 
or untired perseverance gain access, till at the ex- 
pense of half their lives, they are warned by expe- 
rience like an inspiration from above, to become as 
little children, that they may enter. But when the 



123 

influence of education is more duly estimated ; and 
when the cultivation of the head and heart, shall be 
united, and form one distinct and dignified profession, 
drawing to its practice the greatest and best of men ; 
we may then hope a proper direction will be given 
to the opening minds, and expanding hearts of the 
young ; and that all the deep and permanent prepos- 
sessions of childhood and youth, will be upon the 
side of truth and virtue. Science, philosophy, and 
religion will then be blended with their very natures, 
to grow with their growth, and strengthen with their 
strength. The whole earth will then constitute but 
one beautiful temple, in which may dwell in peace, all 
mankind ; and their lives form but one consistent 
and perpetual worship. 



The distance of the author from the press has prevented our 
submitting for his correction all the preceding letters, as they 
were struck off. This will account for a few errors, which might 
Hot otherwise have escaped. Publishers, 



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